Techniques to use a neural network to expand an image

ABSTRACT

Apparatuses, systems, and techniques for texture synthesis from small input textures in images using convolutional neural networks. In at least one embodiment, one or more convolutional layers are used in conjunction with one or more transposed convolution operations to generate a large textured output image from a small input textured image while preserving global features and texture, according to various novel techniques described herein.

TECHNICAL FIELD

At least one embodiment pertains to processing resources used to performtexture synthesis from input images using convolutional neural networks.For example, at least one embodiment pertains to processors or computingsystems used to generate a large output image from a small input imageusing transposed convolutional neural networks, according to variousnovel techniques described herein.

BACKGROUND

Texture synthesis is a problem of generating a large image output givena small example input such that visual features and structures in saidsmall example input are preserved both locally and globally in an outputlarge image. Existing methods perform synthesis on pixel-by-pixelgranularity, which requires significant computational and memoryresources, and often fails to produce a larger output texture thatpreserves both visual features and structures.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an architecture for training andinferencing to perform texture synthesis, according to at least oneembodiment;

FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating a generative adversarial network(GAN), according to at least one embodiment;

FIG. 3 is a block diagram illustrating a generator to perform texturesynthesis, according to at least one embodiment;

FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating components of a generator toperform texture synthesis, according to at least one embodiment;

FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating a self-similarity map, accordingto at least one embodiment;

FIG. 6 is a block diagram illustrating a transposed convolution block,according to at least one embodiment;

FIG. 7 illustrates a process to perform texture synthesis using noveltechniques described herein, according to at least one embodiment;

FIG. 8A illustrates inference and/or training logic, according to atleast one embodiment;

FIG. 8B illustrates inference and/or training logic, according to atleast one embodiment;

FIG. 9 illustrates training and deployment of a neural network,according to at least one embodiment;

FIG. 10 illustrates an example data center system, according to at leastone embodiment;

FIG. 11A illustrates an example of an autonomous vehicle, according toat least one embodiment;

FIG. 11B illustrates an example of camera locations and fields of viewfor the autonomous vehicle of FIG. 11A, according to at least oneembodiment;

FIG. 11C is a block diagram illustrating an example system architecturefor the autonomous vehicle of FIG. 11A, according to at least oneembodiment;

FIG. 11D is a diagram illustrating a system for communication betweencloud-based server(s) and the autonomous vehicle of FIG. 11A, accordingto at least one embodiment;

FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating a computer system, according toat least one embodiment;

FIG. 13 is a block diagram illustrating a computer system, according toat least one embodiment;

FIG. 14 illustrates a computer system, according to at least oneembodiment;

FIG. 15 illustrates a computer system, according to at least oneembodiment;

FIG. 16A illustrates a computer system, according to at least oneembodiment;

FIG. 16B illustrates a computer system, according to at least oneembodiment;

FIG. 16C illustrates a computer system, according to at least oneembodiment;

FIG. 16D illustrates a computer system, according to at least oneembodiment;

FIGS. 16E and 16F illustrate a shared programming model, according to atleast one embodiment;

FIG. 17 illustrates exemplary integrated circuits and associatedgraphics processors, according to at least one embodiment;

FIGS. 18A and 18B illustrate exemplary integrated circuits andassociated graphics processors, according to at least one embodiment;

FIGS. 19A and 19B illustrate additional exemplary graphics processorlogic according to at least one embodiment;

FIG. 20 illustrates a computer system, according to at least oneembodiment;

FIG. 21A illustrates a parallel processor, according to at least oneembodiment;

FIG. 21B illustrates a partition unit, according to at least oneembodiment;

FIG. 21C illustrates a processing cluster, according to at least oneembodiment;

FIG. 21D illustrates a graphics multiprocessor, according to at leastone embodiment;

FIG. 22 illustrates a multi-graphics processing unit (GPU) system,according to at least one embodiment;

FIG. 23 illustrates a graphics processor, according to at least oneembodiment;

FIG. 24 is a block diagram illustrating a processor micro-architecturefor a processor, according to at least one embodiment;

FIG. 25 illustrates a deep learning application processor, according toat least one embodiment;

FIG. 26 is a block diagram illustrating an example neuromorphicprocessor, according to at least one embodiment;

FIG. 27 illustrates at least portions of a graphics processor, accordingto one or more embodiments;

FIG. 28 illustrates at least portions of a graphics processor, accordingto one or more embodiments;

FIG. 29 illustrates at least portions of a graphics processor, accordingto one or more embodiments;

FIG. 30 is a block diagram of a graphics processing engine of a graphicsprocessor in accordance with at least one embodiment;

FIG. 31 is a block diagram of at least portions of a graphics processorcore, according to at least one embodiment;

FIGS. 32A and 32B illustrate thread execution logic including an arrayof processing elements of a graphics processor core according to atleast one embodiment;

FIG. 33 illustrates a parallel processing unit (“PPU”), according to atleast one embodiment;

FIG. 34 illustrates a general processing cluster (“GPC”), according toat least one embodiment;

FIG. 35 illustrates a memory partition unit of a parallel processingunit (“PPU”), according to at least one embodiment;

FIG. 36 illustrates a streaming multi-processor, according to at leastone embodiment.

FIG. 37 is an example data flow diagram for an advanced computingpipeline, in accordance with at least one embodiment;

FIG. 38 is a system diagram for an example system for training,adapting, instantiating and deploying machine learning models in anadvanced computing pipeline, in accordance with at least one embodiment;

FIG. 39 includes an example illustration of an advanced computingpipeline 3810A for processing imaging data, in accordance with at leastone embodiment;

FIG. 40A includes an example data flow diagram of a virtual instrumentsupporting an ultrasound device, in accordance with at least oneembodiment;

FIG. 40B includes an example data flow diagram of a virtual instrumentsupporting an CT scanner, in accordance with at least one embodiment;

FIG. 41A illustrates a data flow diagram for a process to train amachine learning model, in accordance with at least one embodiment; and

FIG. 41B is an example illustration of a client-server architecture toenhance annotation tools with pre-trained annotation models, inaccordance with at least one embodiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an architecture for training 104and inferencing 110 to perform texture synthesis, according to at leastone embodiment. In at least one embodiment, texture synthesis is used togenerate large images using a repetitive texture from a smaller baselineinput image. In at least one embodiment, texture synthesis is used invirtual reality and other graphics applications to generate large datasets comprising textured images from smaller baseline input images. Inat least one embodiment, texture synthesis is used to generate imagedata sets comprising larger image sizes from smaller baseline inputimages. In at least one embodiment, training data 102 is input into atraining framework 104 to train an untrained neural network 106 tosynthesize an (N*Z)×(M*Z) output 112 from an N×M input 108. In at leastone embodiment, training data 102 is one or more images used to train anuntrained neural network 106 using a training framework 104. In at leastone embodiment, training data 102 includes supervision or otherinformation used to facilitate training by a training framework 104. Inat least one embodiment, supervision or other information to facilitatetraining includes data that identifies features of an image that improvetraining by a training framework 104.

In at least one embodiment, a training framework 104 is a set ofinstructions that, when executed, update weight and other values in anuntrained neural network 106 in order to perform inferencing using saidneural network once it has been trained 110. In at least one embodiment,a training framework 104 uses a generative adversarial network (GAN) totrain an untrained neural network 106, as described below in conjunctionwith FIG. 2. In at least one embodiment, a training framework 104determines loss values that are backpropagated in an untrained neuralnetwork 106 in order to train said untrained neural network 106.

In at least one embodiment, an untrained neural network 106 is a set ofinstructions that, when executed, determine a set of data values thatindicate probabilities. In at least one embodiment, a training framework104 trains an untrained neural network 106 to make a decision orinference, about an input 108. In at least one embodiment, a decision orinference includes determining a set of probabilities that an input 108has a characteristic. In at least one embodiment, a set of probabilitiesdetermined by an untrained 106 or trained 110 neural network facilitategenerating an output 112 based on an input 108 to a neural network 106,110. In at least one embodiment, an untrained neural network 106 is aconvolutional neural network, further described herein. In at least oneembodiment, an untrained neural network 106 comprises one or moreindividual neural networks to perform different operations, such asthose described below. In at least one embodiment, an untrained neuralnetwork 106 is any type of neural network that is trained by a trainingframework 104 to determine an output image 112 based on an input image108.

In at least one embodiment, a trained neural network 110 is a set ofinstructions and data values calculated by a training framework 104,where said set of instructions, when executed, makes a determinationabout an input 108 based, at least in part, on said data values. In atleast one embodiment, a trained neural network 110 comprises one or moreconvolutional neural networks or any other type of neural network,further described herein, to determine an output 112 with a larger sizefrom an input 108 with a smaller size.

In at least one embodiment, an N×M input 108 is a data item, such as animage, that contains at least two dimensions of data such as width andheight. In at least one embodiment, an N×M input 108 is an image ofwidth N and height N. In at least one embodiment, an N×M input 208 isused, at least in part, by a trained neural network 110 to help generatean (N*Z)×(M*Z) output 112. In at least one embodiment, an (N*Z)×(M*Z)output 112 is a data item, such as an image, that contains at least twodimensions of data such as width and height. In at least one embodiment,an (N*Z)×(M*Z) output 112 is an image of width (N*Z) and height (M*Z),where Z is a scaling factor or numerical value that indicates a sizeincrease or decrease as a product of an original width dimension N andoriginal height dimension M. In at least one embodiment, an (N*Z)×(M*Z)output 112 is generated based, at least in part, on an N×M input 108 bya trained neural network using techniques further described herein.

FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating a generative adversarial network(GAN) 200 in a training framework 206, according to at least oneembodiment. In at least one embodiment, a training framework 206, asdescribed above in conjunction with FIG. 1, trains one or more neuralnetworks 208, 210 using a GAN 200. In at least one embodiment, a GAN 200is a configuration of one or more neural networks in order to train afirst neural network 208, such as a generator neural network, usingfeedback such as loss values from a second neural network 210, such as adiscriminator neural network.

In at least one embodiment, a GAN 200 contains a generator 208. In atleast one embodiment, a generator 208 is one or more neural networksthat generate a specific output or classification and may be implementedin hardware or software, as described herein. In at least oneembodiment, a GAN 200 contains a discriminator 210. In at least oneembodiment, a discriminator 210 is one or more neural networks thatdetermine if output from a generator 208 is correct. In at least oneembodiment, a discriminator 210 is one or more neural networksimplemented in hardware or software, as described herein. In at leastone embodiment, a discriminator 210 determines other properties ofgenerator 208 output, such as type, value, or other determinations thatimprove generator 208 operation. In at least one embodiment, anexemplary GAN, such as that illustrated in FIG. 2, demonstrates how agenerator 208 is related to a discriminator 210, and how loss values212, 214, 216 are propagated for training.

In at least one embodiment, an exemplary GAN 200 demonstrates how dataflows between input ground truth or supervision 202 as well as trainingdata 204 to a generator 208 and a discriminator 210 in a trainingframework 206, as described above. In at least one embodiment, lossvalues 212, 214, 216 are backpropagated to a generator 208 and adiscriminator 210 as well as between said generator 208 and saiddiscriminator 210. In at least one embodiment, loss values 212, 214, 216are numerical values that are used to update weights stored within oneor more neural networks, such as a generator 208 or a discriminator 210.

In at least one embodiment, loss values 212, 214, 216 are computed basedon input data such as training data 204 and ground truth or supervision202, as well as output from a generator 208 to a discriminator 210. Inat least one embodiment, loss values 212, 214, 216 are calculatedaccording to techniques further described below.

In at least one embodiment, a training framework 206 comprising a GAN200 takes, as input, training data 204 and ground truth or supervisioninformation 202. In at least one embodiment, training data 204 andground truth or supervision information 202 is used by a trainingframework 206 to train one or more neural networks such as a generator208 or a discriminator 210. In at least one embodiment, training data204 is one or more images or other data that are used to train agenerator or other neural networks in order to perform the techniquesdescribed herein. In at least one embodiment, training data 204 is anyother type of data that can be used to perform the texture synthesistechniques described herein.

In at least one embodiment, ground truth or supervision 202 isinformation related to training data 204 that facilitates training oneor more neural networks 208, 210 by a training framework 206 to performtexture synthesis techniques described herein. In at least oneembodiment, ground truth or supervision 202 is baseline images used tocompute, at least in part, loss values 212, 214, 216. In at least oneembodiment, ground truth or supervision is any type of supervision thatfacilitates training one or more neural networks, such as a generator208 or discriminator 210 by a training framework 206.

In at least one embodiment, a generator 208 provides as output agenerated image that has been synthesized according to various noveltechniques described herein. In at least one embodiment, output from agenerator 208 is provided as input to a discriminator 210 for trainingpurposes in a training framework 206. In at least one embodiment, adiscriminator 210 provides loss information 216 to a generator 208 inorder to update weights through backpropagation in a generator 208.

In at least one embodiment, both generator 208 and discriminator 210components of a GAN 200 are neural networks, as described above. In atleast one embodiment, a generator 208 generates new data instances, suchas “fake” images. In at least one embodiment, a generator 208 generatesprobabilities related to input data, such as p(X) when input isarbitrary data type X, or p(X, Y) when input is arbitrary data type Xand labels Y. In at least one embodiment, a generator 208 learns fromtraining data 204 to generate synthesized images, as described above inconjunction with FIG. @101. In at least one embodiment, generatedinstances 210 from generator 208 become negative training examples for adiscriminator 210.

In at least one embodiment, a discriminator 210 discriminates betweendifferent data instances, such as categorizing an input data item astrue or false. In at least one embodiment, a discriminator 210 takes asinput a synthesized image generated by a generator 208 as well as arandom sample of image training data used to generate said synthesizedimage that is a subset of said synthesized image data. In at least oneembodiment, a discriminator 210 is pre-trained.

In at least one embodiment, a discriminator 210 determines if agenerated image from a generator 208 is “fake” or “real” based on aportion of ground truth or supervision 202. In at least one embodiment,a discriminator 210 may determine if an image generated or synthesizedby a generator 208 in a GAN conforms to a specific style or texture. Inat least one embodiment, a discriminator 210 provides feedback to agenerator 208. In at least one embodiment, a discriminator 210 penalizesa generator 208 for producing unrealistic or implausible results.

In at least one embodiment, a discriminator 210 takes two differenttypes of input data. In at least one embodiment, a discriminator 210takes as input real data instances. In at least one embodiment, realdata instances are baseline images or supervised images 202. In at leastone embodiment, a discriminator 210 utilizes real data instances aspositive training examples, or examples of “true” information. In atleast one embodiment, real data instances provide a baseline forcalculating loss information 214, 216, 218. In at least one embodiment,loss information 214 calculated from real data instances 202 isbackpropagated into a discriminator 210 neural network to updateprobabilistic weights.

In at least one embodiment, a discriminator 210 takes as input “fake”data instances output from a generator 208. In at least one embodiment,“fake” data instances output by a generator 208 include synthesizedimages based at least in part on training data 204. In at least oneembodiment, a generator 210 uses “fake” data instances as negativeexamples, or “false” examples, during training by a training framework206. In at least one embodiment, a discriminator 210 uses “fake” datainstances and determines if they are “real” or “fake.” In at least oneembodiment, a discriminator 210 utilizes real data instances, such asground truth or supervision 202, to measure if said discriminator 210correctly determined if a “fake” data instance is “real” or “fake.” Inat least one embodiment, a discriminator 210 calculates loss information216 based on determination of “fake” or “real” synthesized images forinput training data 204, and provides loss information 216 to agenerator 208 such that said generator can update its probabilisticweights.

In at least one embodiment, a GAN 200 is a configuration used fortraining both a generator 208 and a discriminator 210. In at least oneembodiment, once a generator 208 is trained, it is used to synthesize anoutput image based on an input image, as described above in conjunctionwith FIG. 1. In at least one embodiment, during training by a trainingframework 206, a generator 208 produces obviously “fake” data andprovides it to a discriminator 210. In at least one embodiment, adiscriminator 210 learns to determine if its input data is “fake.” In atleast one embodiment, during training by a training framework 206, agenerator 208 and a discriminator 210 are trained separately, thoughgenerator 208 and discriminator 210 training may be performed inalternating rounds such that training is iteratively improved for bothgenerator 208 and discriminator 210. In at least one embodiment, adiscriminator 210 is trained prior to a generator and not updatedthrough backpropagation during generator 208 training.

In at least one embodiment, during discriminator 210 training, adiscriminator 210 classifies both real data, such as ground truth orsupervision 202, and “fake” data 210 from a generator 208. In at leastone embodiment, a discriminator 210 calculates loss information 214, 216based on ground truth data 202 and a discriminator result. In at leastone embodiment, a discriminator 210 penalizes itself for incorrectlydetermining that a real data instance 202 is “fake” or a “fake” datainstance is real. In at least one embodiment, a discriminator 210updates its probabilistic weights through backpropagation 214 given aloss value, calculated from a real data instance, such as ground truthor supervision 202, and a determination made by said discriminator 210.

In at least one embodiment, during generator 208 training, a generator208 samples training data 204, such as textured image data, and producesoutput such as a synthesized textured image as described in conjunctionwith FIGS. 1 and 3. In at least one embodiment, a discriminator 210makes a “real” or “fake” classification and calculates loss information214, 216. In at least one embodiment, loss information 212, 214, 216 isbackpropagated through both discriminator 210 and generator 208 and usedto change probabilistic weights. In at least one embodiment, cycles ofgeneration 208 and discrimination 210 followed by backpropagation ofloss values 212, 214, 216 are repeated until results converge on adesired value. In at least one embodiment, loss functions in a generator208 and discriminator 210 reflect a difference between distribution ofreal data, such as ground truth or supervision 202, and data generatedby a training framework 206 using a GAN 200.

In at least one embodiment, a generator 208 in a training framework 206using a GAN 200 will take as input training data 204 a random image withsize (2*H, 2*W), denoted as I_(target). In at least one embodiment, acenter crop is taken of I_(target) with size (H, W), denoted asI_(input). In at least one embodiment, a training framework 206 willtrain a generator 208 to predict an output image I_(out) with size (2*H,2*W).

In at least one embodiment, a generator 208 is trained by a trainingframework 206 using perceptual and style loss 212 as well as GAN loss216. In at least one embodiment, perceptual and style loss 212 arenumerical values used to determine updated weights in one or more layersof one or more neural networks, such as a generator 208. In at least oneembodiment, perceptual loss, described above, is calculated in order tominimize distance between layers of one or more neural networks, such asthose described below in conjunction with FIGS. 4 and 6. In at least oneembodiment, style loss, described above, is calculated in order tominimize gram matrices corresponding with layers in one or more neuralnetworks, such as those described below in conjunction with FIGS. 4 and6.

In at least one embodiment, GAN loss 216 is a set of numerical valuesused to determine updated weights in one or more neural networks, suchas a generator 208, and is determined based, at least in part, ontechniques described above. In addition, in at least one embodiment, adiscriminator 210 uses additional techniques for loss calculation inconjunction with those described above. In at least one embodiment, adiscriminator calculates GAN loss 216 using different input data thangeneric ground truth or supervision 202, as described above. In at leastone embodiment, a discriminator takes, as input, a concatenation betweenI_(input), described above, and a random (H, W) crop from either I_(out)or I_(target), also described above and denoted as I_(randcrop) ^(out)if I_(out) is selected and I_(randcrop) ^(out) if I_(target) isselected. In at least one embodiment, a discriminator 210 learns toclassify whether I_(input) and I*_(randcrop) is a pair composed of twosimilar texture patches or not. In at least one embodiment, adiscriminator 210 is further trained to classify <I_(input),I_(randcrop) ^(target)> as true and I_(input), I_(randcrop) ^(put)> asfalse while a generator 208 is trained, using techniques describedabove, so that a discriminator 210 can classify I_(input), I_(randcrop)^(out)> as true.

FIG. 3 is a block diagram illustrating a generator 302 to performtexture synthesis, according to at least one embodiment. In at least oneembodiment, a generator 302, as described above in conjunction with FIG.2, is a set of instructions and data values that, when executed,implement operations for one or more neural networks. In at least oneembodiment, a generator 302 takes as input 304 an image file ofdimension (W, H) and outputs 314 an image file of dimension (W*K, H*K),as described above in conjunction with FIGS. 1 and 2. In at least oneembodiment, output 314 is larger than input 304 and is scaled orexpanded by a factor of K. In at least one embodiment, an input 304 isscaled or expanded when its dimensions such as height and width areincreased by a factor of K. In at least one embodiment, scaling an input304 means expanding an input 304 by a factor of K.

In at least one embodiment, a generator 302 takes, as input 304 an imagecomprising a texture patch. In at least one embodiment, a generator 302expands an input 304 texture patch to a larger output 314 image whoselocal pattern resembles said input 304 texture patch. In at least oneembodiment, a generator 302 expands an input 304 texture patch byperforming a weighted linear combination of displaced deep features ofsaid input 304 texture patch at various shifting positions.

In at least one embodiment, let

∈

^(C×H×W) be deep features of an input 304 texture patch, where C is anumber of channels of said input 304 patch, H is a height of an input304 patch, and W is a width of an input 304 patch. In at least oneembodiment, a generator 302 creates a spatially expanded feature map, bya factor of K as described above, by pasting and accumulating

into a C×H×W space with a progressive shift step ranging from 0 to W,along a width axis. In at least one embodiment, shift, paste, andaccumulate is repeated by a generator 302 along a height axis with ashifting step-size range from 0 to H, generating 302 an expanded featuremap

∈

^(C×2H×2W).

In at least one embodiment, a generator 302 creates

by aggregating one or more shifted copies of

. In at least one embodiment, to calculate a feature Q(i, j)∈

^(C), a generator 302 aggregates all possible

(.;.)∈

^(C) that fall in a spatial location (i, j). In at least one embodiment,a generator 302 calculates a similarity score, or weight, for eachshifted feature map as a self-similarity map 308, which quantifies asemantic distance between an original and its shifted copy. In at leastone embodiment, a generator 302 aggregates weighted feature

maps by performing a summation, as described below in conjunction withFIG. 4.

In at least one embodiment, a generator 302 computes

as:

c = ∑ i , j ⁢ ∑ p , q ⁢ R ⁡ ( s ⁡ ( p , q ) ) , ℱ p , q c ⁡ ( i , j )

where c∈[0, C], i∈[0,2H], j∈[0, 2 W],

${p \in \left\lbrack {{- \frac{H}{2}},\frac{H}{2}} \right\rbrack},{q \in \left\lbrack {{- \frac{W}{2}},\frac{W}{2}} \right\rbrack},$

s(p, q) is a similarity score of (p, q)-shifting of a feature map,R(s(p, q)) is a subnetwork comprising two convolution layers and arectified linear unit as described below in conjunction with FIG. 6, and

^(p,q) ∈

^(C×2H×2W) is a feature map where regions are a copy of

with (p, q)-shifting. In at least one embodiment,

_(p,q) (x, y) is

$\mathcal{F}\left( {{x - p - \frac{H}{2}},{y - q - \frac{W}{2}}} \right)$

if 0≤x−p≤H and 0≤y−q≤W, and 0 otherwise, where x∈[0,2H], y∈[0,2 W].

In at least one embodiment, a generator 302 computes a similarity scoreas:

${s\left( {p,q} \right)} = {- \frac{\sum_{m,n,c}\left( {\mathcal{F}_{m,n}^{c} - \mathcal{F}_{{m - p},{n - q}}^{c}} \right)^{2}}{M^{p}*N^{q}*{\mathcal{F}}_{2}}}$or${s\left( {p,q} \right)} = {- \frac{\sum_{m,n,c}\left( {\mathcal{F}_{m,n}^{c} - \mathcal{F}_{{m - p},{n - q}}^{c}} \right)^{2}}{\sum_{m,n,c}\left( \mathcal{F}_{m,n}^{c} \right)^{2}}}$

where c∈[0, C], m∈[max(0, p), min(p+H, H)], n∈[max(0, q), min(q+W, W)].In at least one embodiment, m and n indicate an overlapping regionbetween a (p, q)-shifted copy and an original copy. In at least oneembodiment, M^(p) and N^(q) are lengths of ranges m and n. In at leastone embodiment, ∥

∥₂ is an L2 norm of

used for denormalization such that scale of s(p, q) is independent ofscale of

. In at least one embodiment, a similarity score for a shift of (p, q)along input 304 width and height axis is computed 308 as an L2 distancebetween un-shifted and shifted copies of a feature map, normalized witha spatial size of non-zero overlap and feature norm. In at least oneembodiment, if no shift takes place, a maximum similarity score iscomputed 308.

In at least one embodiment, a generator 302 performs a one or moretransposed convolution operations 310. In at least one embodiment, aprocess of pasting shifted feature maps and subsequent weightedaggregation to create larger feature maps is equivalent to a transposedconvolution operation in deep neural networks. In at least oneembodiment, for a given feature map and self-similarity map, atransposed convolution operation 310 takes as input said self similaritymap and uses said feature map as transposed convolution filters.

In at least one embodiment, a generator 302 comprises an encoder 306,one or more modules to compute self-similarity maps 308, one or moremodules to perform transposed convolution blocks 310, and a decoder 312.In at least one embodiment, components of a generator 302 performtexture synthesis on an input 304, as described above, to generate anoutput 314 texture with greater dimension than said input 314. In atleast one embodiment, an encoder 306 is a set of software instructionsthat, when executed, perform neural network operations to encode aninput 304 texture image into deep features at different scales orlevels. In at least one embodiment, an encoder 306 in a generator 302comprises one or more convolutional layers that each determine a featuremap at a different scale based on an input image, as further describedbelow in conjunction with FIG. 4.

In at least one embodiment, self-similarity maps 308 are computedaccording to equations described above. In at least one embodiment, aself-similarity map 308 is a two-dimensional matrix of numerical valuesthat indicate a weight determined according to techniques and equationsdescribed above. In at least one embodiment, a self-similarity map 308is a guidance map from encoded 306 features to weight shifted featuredmaps to be used by one or more transposed convolution blocks 310 in agenerator 302.

In at least one embodiment, a transposed convolution block 310 is one ormore instructions that, when executed, perform a transposed convolutionoperation as described in conjunction with FIG. 6. In at least oneembodiment, transposed convolution blocks 310 apply a spatially varyingtransposed convolution operation, where feature maps from an encoder 306are treated as filters and self-similarity maps 308 are used to produceexpanded feature maps.

In at least one embodiment, expanded feature maps from one or moretransposed convolution blocks 312 are processed by a decoder 312 inorder to produce an output 314 for a generator 302. In at least oneembodiment, a decoder 312 is one or more software instructions that,when executed, perform a bilinear upscaling followed by a normalconvolution on expanded feature maps. In at least one embodiment, adecoder 312 performs upscaling and convolution on each scale output fromone or more transposed convolution blocks 310. In at least oneembodiment, a decoder 312 comprises one or more convolutional layers, asfurther described below in conjunction with FIG. 4. In at least oneembodiment, a decoder 302 combines decoded feature maps output inconjunction with one or more transposed convolution blocks 310. In atleast one embodiment, a decoder 312 performs upscaling by zero-paddingfeature maps output by convolutional layers or transposed convolutionblocks 310.

FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating components of a generator 400 toperform texture synthesis, according to at least one embodiment. In atleast one embodiment, arrows in an encoder 404 and decoder 408 representconvolutional layers. In at least one embodiment, arrows in a decoder408 also represent upsampling layers in addition to convolutionallayers. In at least one embodiment, an encoder 404 in a generator 400takes, as input 402, a 1×1 or H×W image containing a texture, asdescribed above. In at least one embodiment, a decoder 408 in agenerator 400 generates a 2×2 or (2*H)×(2*W) output 410 containing asynthesized texture based on an input 402 using techniques describedabove in conjunction with FIG. 3.

In at least one embodiment, an encoder 404 is one or more softwareinstructions to perform, when executed, scaling and feature mapoperations as described above in conjunction with FIG. 3. In at leastone embodiment, an encoder 404 comprises one or more intermediatefeatures 412, 414, 416, 418, 420. In at least one embodiment, one ormore intermediate features 412, 414, 416, 418, 420 are matrices ofnumerical values representing features of an input 402. In at least oneembodiment, each intermediate feature 412, 414, 416, 418, 420 isprocessed by a convolutional layer and scaled by half, generatingsmaller intermediate features 412, 414, 416, 418, 420 after eachconvolutional layer (arrow). In at least one embodiment, smallerintermediate layers 412, 414, 416, 418, 420 are scaled from a previousintermediate layer 412, 414, 416, 418, 420, and not directly from aninput 402.

In at least one embodiment, intermediate features (¼) 416 representfull-scale intermediate features (1) 412 that have been scaled down to25% by one or more convolutional layers (represented by arrows in anencoder 404 of FIG. 4). In at least one embodiment, intermediatefeatures (¼) 416 are input into a transposed convolution block (¼) 422,which performs a transposed convolution operation and self-similaritycomputation 406, further described above in conjunction with FIG. 3 andbelow in conjunction with FIG. 6. In at least one embodiment, aself-similarity map 428 is computed based on input intermediate features(¼) 416 to transposed convolution block (¼) 422, and used by transposedconvolution block (¼) to generate output intermediate features (½) 438that are scaled up by said transposed convolution block (¼) 422. In atleast one embodiment, a self-similarity map 428 is computed usingtechniques described above in conjunction with FIG. 3 and below inconjunction with FIG. 5. In at least one embodiment, intermediatefeatures (½) 438 are aggregated 444 with intermediate features (¼) 440,that have been output from transposed convolution block (⅛) 424, whichare also aggregated 446 with intermediate features (⅛) 442 as outputfrom transposed convolution block ( 1/16) 426 into a decoder 408. In atleast one embodiment, a decoder 408 performs aggregation 444, 446 as asummation operation with zero-padding to match dimensions of inputvalues.

In at least one embodiment, intermediate features (⅛) 418 representfull-scale intermediate features (1) 412 that have been scaled down to ⅛by one or more convolutional layers (represented by arrows in an encoder404 of FIG. 4). In at least one embodiment, intermediate features (⅛)418 are input into a transposed convolution block (⅛) 424, whichperforms a transposed convolution operation and self-similaritycomputation 406, further described above in conjunction with FIG. 3 andbelow in conjunction with FIG. 6. In at least one embodiment, aself-similarity map 430 is computed based on input intermediate features(⅛) 418 to transposed convolution block (⅛) 424, and used by transposedconvolution block (⅛) 424 to generate output intermediate features (¼)440 that are scaled up by said transposed convolution block (⅛) 424. Inat least one embodiment, a self-similarity map 428 is computed usingtechniques described above in conjunction with FIG. 3 and below inconjunction with FIG. 5. In at least one embodiment, intermediatefeatures (¼) 440 are aggregated 444 with intermediate features (⅛) 442,that have been output from transposed convolution block ( 1/16) 426.

In at least one embodiment, intermediate features ( 1/16) 430 representfull-scale intermediate features (1) 412 that have been scaled down to1/16 by one or more convolutional layers (represented by arrows in anencoder 404 of FIG. 4). In at least one embodiment, intermediatefeatures ( 1/16) 420 are input into a transposed convolution block (1/16) 426, which performs a transposed convolution operation andself-similarity computation 406, further described above in conjunctionwith FIG. 3 and below in conjunction with FIGS. 5 and 6. In at least oneembodiment, a self-similarity map 432 is computed based on inputintermediate features ( 1/16) 420 to transposed convolution block (1/16) 426, and used by transposed convolution block ( 1/16) 426 togenerate output intermediate features (⅛) 442 that are scaled up by saidtransposed convolution block ( 1/16) 426. In at least one embodiment, aself-similarity map 432 is computed using techniques described above inconjunction with FIG. 3 and below in conjunction with FIG. 5.

In at least one embodiment, a decoder 408 is a set of instructions that,when executed, implemented one or more convolutional and upsamplinglayers to combine intermediate features 434, 436, 438, 440, 442 in orderto generate an output 410 with dimensions (2*H)×(2*W), as describedabove. In at least one embodiment, in a decoder 408, intermediatefeatures (½) 438 is aggregated 444 with intermediate features (¼) 440,which are aggregated 446 with intermediate features (⅛) 442. In at leastone embodiment, intermediate features (1) 436 is a feature map,described herein, with dimensions equal to input 402 dimensions to anencoder 404. In at least one embodiment, intermediate features (1) 436are obtained by upsampling an aggregation 444 of intermediate features(½) 438 and a previous aggregation 446 and upsampling of intermediatefeatures (¼) 440 and intermediate features (⅛) 442. In at least oneembodiment, output 410 with dimension (2*H)×(2*W) is generated fromintermediate features (2) 434, which is an upsampling of intermediatefeatures (1) 436 by a factor of 2.

FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating a self-similarity map 500,according to at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, aself-similarity map 500 is a two-dimensional vector of numerical valuesthat are weights for shifted feature maps used by a convolutional block,as described above in conjunction with FIG. 3 and below in conjunctionwith 6. In at least one embodiment, a similarity score s(p, q) forfeature map that has been shifted along an x-axis 502 by p steps andalong ay-axis 504 by q steps is defined as:

${s\left( {p,q} \right)} = {- \frac{\sum_{m,n,c}\left( {\mathcal{F}_{m,n}^{c} - \mathcal{F}_{{m - p},{n - q}}^{c}} \right)^{2}}{M^{p}*N^{q}*{\mathcal{F}}_{2}}}$

where c∈[0, C], m∈[max(0, p), min(p+H, H)], n E [max(0, q), min(q+W,W)]. In at least one embodiment, W 508 is a numerical value indicatingwidth of a feature map, and H 506 is a numerical value indicating heightof a feature map.

In at least one embodiment, m and n indicate an overlapping regionbetween a (p, q)-shifted copy and an original copy of a feature map. Inat least one embodiment, M^(p) and N^(q) are lengths of ranges m and n.In at least one embodiment, ∥

∥₂ is an L2 norm of

used for denormalization such that scale of s(p, q) is independent ofscale of

. In at least one embodiment, a similarity score for a shift of (p, q)along width 502 and height 504 axis is computed 308 as an L2 distancebetween un-shifted and shifted copies of a feature map, normalized witha spatial size of non-zero overlap and feature norm.

In at least one embodiment, a valid feature 510 is a feature in afeature map that does not overlap, after shifting of said feature map,with a feature in an original, unshifted feature map. In at least oneembodiment, a valid feature 510 is given maximum weight in aself-similarity map 500. In at least one embodiment, an overlappedfeature 512 is a feature in a feature map that does overlap with afeature in an unshifted feature map. In at least one embodiment, anoverlapped feature will be given lower weight when compared with a validfeature 510 such that features of an original feature map are moreprominent than overlapped features 512 in a (p, q)-shifted feature map.In at least one embodiment, spaces in a self-similarity map that containno features in an original or (p, q)-shifted feature map are zero-padded514 in order to ensure that features from other feature maps are used inthose spaces, which serve a purpose of filling space. In at least oneembodiment, a zero-pad is an empty entry in a self-similarity map 500such that features from a different (p, q)-shifted feature map are givena higher weight.

FIG. 6 is a block diagram illustrating a transposed convolution block604, according to at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, atransposed convolution block 604 is a set of instructions that, whenexecuted perform a process of shifting input 602 feature maps at variousoffsets and aggregating results according to one or more weights, suchas a self-similarity map as described above in conjunction with FIGS. 3and 5, into a larger output 636 feature map.

In at least one embodiment, input encoded (intermediate) features 602,as described above in conjunction with FIG. 4, are input into athree-element block comprising two 3×3 convolutional layers 608, 612 anda rectified linear unit 610. In at least one embodiment, a convolutionallayer 608, 612, 614, 618, 632 is described further herein, but isgenerally a set of instructions and data values that, when executed,apply a weighted value to an input numerical value. In at least oneembodiment, a rectified linear unit (ReLU) 610, 616, 634 is a set ofinstructions that, when executed, perform an activation function used inneural networks, further described herein.

In at least one embodiment, output from a three-element block comprisingtwo 3×3 convolutional layers 608, 612 and a ReLU 610 is used as atransposed convolution filter weight 624. In at least one embodiment, atransposed convolution filter weight 624 is one or more numerical valuesused as weights in a transposed convolution operation 628. In at leastone embodiment, output from a three-element block comprising two 3×3convolutional layers 608, 612 and a ReLU 610 is pooled and input into afully connected layer 620 in order to compute a transposed convolutionfilter bias 622. In at least one embodiment, a fully connected layer isa set of instructions that, when executed, generate a score based on aninput, or a bias 622 used in a transposed convolution operation 628.

In at least one embodiment, a self-similarity map is computed 606 frominput encoded (intermediate) features 602 as described above inconjunction with FIGS. 3 and 5. In at least one embodiment, aself-similarity map 606 is input to a three-element block comprising a3×3 convolutional layer 614, a ReLU 616, and a 1×1 convolutional layer618. Output from a three-element block comprising a 3×3 convolutionallayer 614, a ReLU 616, and a 1×1 convolutional layer 618 is a transposedconvolution input 626, in at least one embodiment.

In at least one embodiment, a transposed convolution operation 628 is aset of instructions that, when executed, copy an input 626 feature mapweighted by respective filter values 624 and bias 622 onto a largerfeature grid, and perform a summation. In at least one embodiment, aresult 630 from a transposed convolution operation 628 is fed into atwo-element block comprising a 3×3 convolutional layer 632 and anotherReLU 634 in order to generate output encoded (intermediate) features636, as described above in conjunction with FIGS. 3 and 4. In at leastone embodiment, output encoded (intermediate) features 636 are used by adecoder, as described in conjunction with FIGS. 3 and 4 to generate anoutput image with synthesized texture.

FIG. 7 illustrates a process 700 to perform texture synthesis usingnovel techniques described herein, according to at least one embodiment.In at least one embodiment, texture synthesis begins 702 by gettingscaled feature maps 704 through repeated application of convolutionallayers on an input image, as described above in conjunction with FIG. 4.These scaled feature maps, in an embodiment, are used to computeself-similarity maps 706 comprising offset and assembly weights, asdescribed above in conjunction with FIGS. 3 and 5.

In at least one embodiment, scaled intermediate features computed 704from an input as well as offset and assembly weights 706 are used by oneor more transposed convolution blocks to shift, paste, and assemble 708feature maps onto a larger grid according to assembly weights 706 in aself-similarity map, as described above in conjunction with FIG. 4. Inat least one embodiment, output feature maps from one or more transposedconvolution blocks are combined 710 through aggregation, and upsampled712 as described above in conjunction with FIG. 4.

Inference and Training Logic

FIG. 8A illustrates inference and/or training logic 815 used to performinferencing and/or training operations associated with one or moreembodiments. Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 areprovided below in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B.

In at least one embodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 mayinclude, without limitation, code and/or data storage 801 to storeforward and/or output weight and/or input/output data, and/or otherparameters to configure neurons or layers of a neural network trainedand/or used for inferencing in aspects of one or more embodiments. In atleast one embodiment, training logic 815 may include, or be coupled tocode and/or data storage 801 to store graph code or other software tocontrol timing and/or order, in which weight and/or other parameterinformation is to be loaded to configure, logic, including integerand/or floating point units (collectively, arithmetic logic units(ALUs). In at least one embodiment, code, such as graph code, loadsweight or other parameter information into processor ALUs based on anarchitecture of a neural network to which such code corresponds. In atleast one embodiment code and/or data storage 801 stores weightparameters and/or input/output data of each layer of a neural networktrained or used in conjunction with one or more embodiments duringforward propagation of input/output data and/or weight parameters duringtraining and/or inferencing using aspects of one or more embodiments. Inat least one embodiment, any portion of code and/or data storage 801 maybe included with other on-chip or off-chip data storage, including aprocessor's L1, L2, or L3 cache or system memory.

In at least one embodiment, any portion of code and/or data storage 801may be internal or external to one or more processors or other hardwarelogic devices or circuits. In at least one embodiment, code and/or codeand/or data storage 801 may be cache memory, dynamic randomlyaddressable memory (“DRAM”), static randomly addressable memory(“SRAM”), non-volatile memory (e.g., flash memory), or other storage. Inat least one embodiment, a choice of whether code and/or code and/ordata storage 801 is internal or external to a processor, for example, orcomprising DRAM, SRAM, flash or some other storage type may depend onavailable storage on-chip versus off-chip, latency requirements oftraining and/or inferencing functions being performed, batch size ofdata used in inferencing and/or training of a neural network, or somecombination of these factors.

In at least one embodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 mayinclude, without limitation, a code and/or data storage 805 to storebackward and/or output weight and/or input/output data corresponding toneurons or layers of a neural network trained and/or used forinferencing in aspects of one or more embodiments. In at least oneembodiment, code and/or data storage 805 stores weight parameters and/orinput/output data of each layer of a neural network trained or used inconjunction with one or more embodiments during backward propagation ofinput/output data and/or weight parameters during training and/orinferencing using aspects of one or more embodiments. In at least oneembodiment, training logic 815 may include, or be coupled to code and/ordata storage 805 to store graph code or other software to control timingand/or order, in which weight and/or other parameter information is tobe loaded to configure, logic, including integer and/or floating pointunits (collectively, arithmetic logic units (ALUs).

In at least one embodiment, code, such as graph code, causes the loadingof weight or other parameter information into processor ALUs based on anarchitecture of a neural network to which such code corresponds. In atleast one embodiment, any portion of code and/or data storage 805 may beincluded with other on-chip or off-chip data storage, including aprocessor's L1, L2, or L3 cache or system memory. In at least oneembodiment, any portion of code and/or data storage 805 may be internalor external to one or more processors or other hardware logic devices orcircuits. In at least one embodiment, code and/or data storage 805 maybe cache memory, DRAM, SRAM, non-volatile memory (e.g., flash memory),or other storage. In at least one embodiment, a choice of whether codeand/or data storage 805 is internal or external to a processor, forexample, or comprising DRAM, SRAM, flash memory or some other storagetype may depend on available storage on-chip versus off-chip, latencyrequirements of training and/or inferencing functions being performed,batch size of data used in inferencing and/or training of a neuralnetwork, or some combination of these factors.

In at least one embodiment, code and/or data storage 801 and code and/ordata storage 805 may be separate storage structures. In at least oneembodiment, code and/or data storage 801 and code and/or data storage805 may be a combined storage structure. In at least one embodiment,code and/or data storage 801 and code and/or data storage 805 may bepartially combined and partially separate. In at least one embodiment,any portion of code and/or data storage 801 and code and/or data storage805 may be included with other on-chip or off-chip data storage,including a processor's L1, L2, or L3 cache or system memory.

In at least one embodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 mayinclude, without limitation, one or more arithmetic logic unit(s)(“ALU(s)”) 810, including integer and/or floating point units, toperform logical and/or mathematical operations based, at least in parton, or indicated by, training and/or inference code (e.g., graph code),a result of which may produce activations (e.g., output values fromlayers or neurons within a neural network) stored in an activationstorage 820 that are functions of input/output and/or weight parameterdata stored in code and/or data storage 801 and/or code and/or datastorage 805. In at least one embodiment, activations stored inactivation storage 820 are generated according to linear algebraic andor matrix-based mathematics performed by ALU(s) 810 in response toperforming instructions or other code, wherein weight values stored incode and/or data storage 805 and/or data storage 801 are used asoperands along with other values, such as bias values, gradientinformation, momentum values, or other parameters or hyperparameters,any or all of which may be stored in code and/or data storage 805 orcode and/or data storage 801 or another storage on or off-chip.

In at least one embodiment, ALU(s) 810 are included within one or moreprocessors or other hardware logic devices or circuits, whereas inanother embodiment, ALU(s) 810 may be external to a processor or otherhardware logic device or circuit that uses them (e.g., a co-processor).In at least one embodiment, ALUs 810 may be included within aprocessor's execution units or otherwise within a bank of ALUsaccessible by a processor's execution units either within same processoror distributed between different processors of different types (e.g.,central processing units, graphics processing units, fixed functionunits, etc.). In at least one embodiment, code and/or data storage 801,code and/or data storage 805, and activation storage 820 may share aprocessor or other hardware logic device or circuit, whereas in anotherembodiment, they may be in different processors or other hardware logicdevices or circuits, or some combination of same and differentprocessors or other hardware logic devices or circuits. In at least oneembodiment, any portion of activation storage 820 may be included withother on-chip or off-chip data storage, including a processor's L1, L2,or L3 cache or system memory. Furthermore, inferencing and/or trainingcode may be stored with other code accessible to a processor or otherhardware logic or circuit and fetched and/or processed using aprocessor's fetch, decode, scheduling, execution, retirement and/orother logical circuits.

In at least one embodiment, activation storage 820 may be cache memory,DRAM, SRAM, non-volatile memory (e.g., flash memory), or other storage.In at least one embodiment, activation storage 820 may be completely orpartially within or external to one or more processors or other logicalcircuits. In at least one embodiment, a choice of whether activationstorage 820 is internal or external to a processor, for example, orcomprising DRAM, SRAM, flash memory or some other storage type maydepend on available storage on-chip versus off-chip, latencyrequirements of training and/or inferencing functions being performed,batch size of data used in inferencing and/or training of a neuralnetwork, or some combination of these factors.

In at least one embodiment, inference and/or training logic 815illustrated in FIG. 8A may be used in conjunction with anapplication-specific integrated circuit (“ASIC”), such as a TensorFlow®Processing Unit from Google, an inference processing unit (IPU) fromGraphcore™, or a Nervana® (e.g., “Lake Crest”) processor from IntelCorp. In at least one embodiment, inference and/or training logic 815illustrated in FIG. 8A may be used in conjunction with centralprocessing unit (“CPU”) hardware, graphics processing unit (“GPU”)hardware or other hardware, such as field programmable gate arrays(“FPGAs”).

FIG. 8B illustrates inference and/or training logic 815, according to atleast one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, inference and/ortraining logic 815 may include, without limitation, hardware logic inwhich computational resources are dedicated or otherwise exclusivelyused in conjunction with weight values or other informationcorresponding to one or more layers of neurons within a neural network.In at least one embodiment, inference and/or training logic 815illustrated in FIG. 8B may be used in conjunction with anapplication-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), such as TensorFlow®Processing Unit from Google, an inference processing unit (IPU) fromGraphcore™, or a Nervana® (e.g., “Lake Crest”) processor from IntelCorp. In at least one embodiment, inference and/or training logic 815illustrated in FIG. 8B may be used in conjunction with centralprocessing unit (CPU) hardware, graphics processing unit (GPU) hardwareor other hardware, such as field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). In atleast one embodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 includes,without limitation, code and/or data storage 801 and code and/or datastorage 805, which may be used to store code (e.g., graph code), weightvalues and/or other information, including bias values, gradientinformation, momentum values, and/or other parameter or hyperparameterinformation. In at least one embodiment illustrated in FIG. 8B, each ofcode and/or data storage 801 and code and/or data storage 805 isassociated with a dedicated computational resource, such ascomputational hardware 802 and computational hardware 806, respectively.In at least one embodiment, each of computational hardware 802 andcomputational hardware 806 comprises one or more ALUs that performmathematical functions, such as linear algebraic functions, only oninformation stored in code and/or data storage 801 and code and/or datastorage 805, respectively, result of which is stored in activationstorage 820.

In at least one embodiment, each of code and/or data storage 801 and 805and corresponding computational hardware 802 and 806, respectively,correspond to different layers of a neural network, such that resultingactivation from one storage/computational pair 801/802 of code and/ordata storage 801 and computational hardware 802 is provided as an inputto a next storage/computational pair 805/806 of code and/or data storage805 and computational hardware 806, in order to mirror a conceptualorganization of a neural network. In at least one embodiment, each ofstorage/computational pairs 801/802 and 805/806 may correspond to morethan one neural network layer. In at least one embodiment, additionalstorage/computation pairs (not shown) subsequent to or in parallel withstorage/computation pairs 801/802 and 805/806 may be included ininference and/or training logic 815.

Neural Network Training and Deployment

FIG. 9 illustrates training and deployment of a deep neural network,according to at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment,untrained neural network 906 is trained using a training dataset 902. Inat least one embodiment, training framework 904 is a PyTorch framework,whereas in other embodiments, training framework 904 is a TensorFlow,Boost, Caffe, Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit/CNTK, MXNet, Chainer, Keras,Deeplearning4j, or other training framework. In at least one embodiment,training framework 904 trains an untrained neural network 906 andenables it to be trained using processing resources described herein togenerate a trained neural network 908. In at least one embodiment,weights may be chosen randomly or by pre-training using a deep beliefnetwork. In at least one embodiment, training may be performed in eithera supervised, partially supervised, or unsupervised manner.

In at least one embodiment, untrained neural network 906 is trainedusing supervised learning, wherein training dataset 902 includes aninput paired with a desired output for an input, or where trainingdataset 902 includes input having a known output and an output of neuralnetwork 906 is manually graded. In at least one embodiment, untrainedneural network 906 is trained in a supervised manner and processesinputs from training dataset 902 and compares resulting outputs againsta set of expected or desired outputs. In at least one embodiment, errorsare then propagated back through untrained neural network 906. In atleast one embodiment, training framework 904 adjusts weights thatcontrol untrained neural network 906. In at least one embodiment,training framework 904 includes tools to monitor how well untrainedneural network 906 is converging towards a model, such as trained neuralnetwork 908, suitable to generating correct answers, such as in result914, based on input data such as a new dataset 912. In at least oneembodiment, training framework 904 trains untrained neural network 906repeatedly while adjust weights to refine an output of untrained neuralnetwork 906 using a loss function and adjustment algorithm, such asstochastic gradient descent. In at least one embodiment, trainingframework 904 trains untrained neural network 906 until untrained neuralnetwork 906 achieves a desired accuracy. In at least one embodiment,trained neural network 908 can then be deployed to implement any numberof machine learning operations.

In at least one embodiment, untrained neural network 906 is trainedusing unsupervised learning, wherein untrained neural network 906attempts to train itself using unlabeled data. In at least oneembodiment, unsupervised learning training dataset 902 will includeinput data without any associated output data or “ground truth” data. Inat least one embodiment, untrained neural network 906 can learngroupings within training dataset 902 and can determine how individualinputs are related to untrained dataset 902. In at least one embodiment,unsupervised training can be used to generate a self-organizing map intrained neural network 908 capable of performing operations useful inreducing dimensionality of new dataset 912. In at least one embodiment,unsupervised training can also be used to perform anomaly detection,which allows identification of data points in new dataset 912 thatdeviate from normal patterns of new dataset 912.

In at least one embodiment, semi-supervised learning may be used, whichis a technique in which in training dataset 902 includes a mix oflabeled and unlabeled data. In at least one embodiment, trainingframework 904 may be used to perform incremental learning, such asthrough transferred learning techniques. In at least one embodiment,incremental learning enables trained neural network 908 to adapt to newdataset 912 without forgetting knowledge instilled within trained neuralnetwork 908 during initial training.

Data Center

FIG. 10 illustrates an example data center 1000, in which at least oneembodiment may be used. In at least one embodiment, data center 1000includes a data center infrastructure layer 1010, a framework layer1020, a software layer 1030 and an application layer 1040.

In at least one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 10, data centerinfrastructure layer 1010 may include a resource orchestrator 1012,grouped computing resources 1014, and node computing resources (“nodeC.R.s”) 1016(1)-1016(N), where “N” represents a positive integer (whichmay be a different integer “N” than used in other figures). In at leastone embodiment, node C.R.s 1016(1)-1016(N) may include, but are notlimited to, any number of central processing units (“CPUs”) or otherprocessors (including accelerators, field programmable gate arrays(FPGAs), graphics processors, etc.), memory storage devices1018(1)-1018(N) (e.g., dynamic read-only memory, solid state storage ordisk drives), network input/output (“NW I/O”) devices, network switches,virtual machines (“VMs”), power modules, and cooling modules, etc. In atleast one embodiment, one or more node C.R.s from among node C.R.s1016(1)-1016(N) may be a server having one or more of above-mentionedcomputing resources.

In at least one embodiment, grouped computing resources 1014 may includeseparate groupings of node C.R.s housed within one or more racks (notshown), or many racks housed in data centers at various geographicallocations (also not shown). In at least one embodiment, separategroupings of node C.R.s within grouped computing resources 1014 mayinclude grouped compute, network, memory or storage resources that maybe configured or allocated to support one or more workloads. In at leastone embodiment, several node C.R.s including CPUs or processors maygrouped within one or more racks to provide compute resources to supportone or more workloads. In at least one embodiment, one or more racks mayalso include any number of power modules, cooling modules, and networkswitches, in any combination.

In at least one embodiment, resource orchestrator 1012 may configure orotherwise control one or more node C.R.s 1016(1)-1016(N) and/or groupedcomputing resources 1014. In at least one embodiment, resourceorchestrator 1012 may include a software design infrastructure (“SDI”)management entity for data center 1000. In at least one embodiment,resource orchestrator 812 may include hardware, software or somecombination thereof.

In at least one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 10, framework layer 1020includes a job scheduler 1022, a configuration manager 1024, a resourcemanager 1026 and a distributed file system 1028. In at least oneembodiment, framework layer 1020 may include a framework to supportsoftware 1032 of software layer 1030 and/or one or more application(s)1042 of application layer 1040. In at least one embodiment, software1032 or application(s) 1042 may respectively include web-based servicesoftware or applications, such as those provided by Amazon Web Services,Google Cloud and Microsoft Azure. In at least one embodiment, frameworklayer 1020 may be, but is not limited to, a type of free and open-sourcesoftware web application framework such as Apache Spark™ (hereinafter“Spark”) that may utilize distributed file system 1028 for large-scaledata processing (e.g., “big data”). In at least one embodiment, jobscheduler 1032 may include a Spark driver to facilitate scheduling ofworkloads supported by various layers of data center 1000. In at leastone embodiment, configuration manager 1024 may be capable of configuringdifferent layers such as software layer 1030 and framework layer 1020including Spark and distributed file system 1028 for supportinglarge-scale data processing. In at least one embodiment, resourcemanager 1026 may be capable of managing clustered or grouped computingresources mapped to or allocated for support of distributed file system1028 and job scheduler 1022. In at least one embodiment, clustered orgrouped computing resources may include grouped computing resources 1014at data center infrastructure layer 1010. In at least one embodiment,resource manager 1026 may coordinate with resource orchestrator 1012 tomanage these mapped or allocated computing resources.

In at least one embodiment, software 1032 included in software layer1030 may include software used by at least portions of node C.R.s1016(1)-1016(N), grouped computing resources 1014, and/or distributedfile system 1028 of framework layer 1020. In at least one embodiment,one or more types of software may include, but are not limited to,Internet web page search software, e-mail virus scan software, databasesoftware, and streaming video content software.

In at least one embodiment, application(s) 1042 included in applicationlayer 1040 may include one or more types of applications used by atleast portions of node C.R.s 1016(1)-1016(N), grouped computingresources 1014, and/or distributed file system 1028 of framework layer1020. In at least one embodiment, one or more types of applications mayinclude, but are not limited to, any number of a genomics application, acognitive compute, application and a machine learning application,including training or inferencing software, machine learning frameworksoftware (e.g., PyTorch, TensorFlow, Caffe, etc.) or other machinelearning applications used in conjunction with one or more embodiments.

In at least one embodiment, any of configuration manager 1024, resourcemanager 1026, and resource orchestrator 1012 may implement any numberand type of self-modifying actions based on any amount and type of dataacquired in any technically feasible fashion. In at least oneembodiment, self-modifying actions may relieve a data center operator ofdata center 1000 from making possibly bad configuration decisions andpossibly avoiding underutilized and/or poor performing portions of adata center.

In at least one embodiment, data center 1000 may include tools,services, software or other resources to train one or more machinelearning models or predict or infer information using one or moremachine learning models according to one or more embodiments describedherein. For example, in at least one embodiment, a machine learningmodel may be trained by calculating weight parameters according to aneural network architecture using software and computing resourcesdescribed above with respect to data center 1000. In at least oneembodiment, trained machine learning models corresponding to one or moreneural networks may be used to infer or predict information usingresources described above with respect to data center 1000 by usingweight parameters calculated through one or more training techniquesdescribed herein.

In at least one embodiment, data center may use CPUs,application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), GPUs, FPGAs, or otherhardware to perform training and/or inferencing using above-describedresources. Moreover, one or more software and/or hardware resourcesdescribed above may be configured as a service to allow users to trainor performing inferencing of information, such as image recognition,speech recognition, or other artificial intelligence services.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 may be used in systemFIG. 10 for inferencing or predicting operations based, at least inpart, on weight parameters calculated using neural network trainingoperations, neural network functions and/or architectures, or neuralnetwork use cases described herein.

Autonomous Vehicle

FIG. 11A illustrates an example of an autonomous vehicle 1100, accordingto at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, autonomousvehicle 1100 (alternatively referred to herein as “vehicle 1100”) maybe, without limitation, a passenger vehicle, such as a car, a truck, abus, and/or another type of vehicle that accommodates one or morepassengers. In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may be asemi-tractor-trailer truck used for hauling cargo. In at least oneembodiment, vehicle 1100 may be an airplane, robotic vehicle, or otherkind of vehicle.

Autonomous vehicles may be described in terms of automation levels,defined by National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (“NHTSA”), adivision of US Department of Transportation, and Society of AutomotiveEngineers (“SAE”) “Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to DrivingAutomation Systems for On-Road Motor Vehicles” (e.g., Standard No.J3016-201806, published on Jun. 15, 2018, Standard No. J3016-201609,published on Sep. 30, 2016, and previous and future versions of thisstandard). In one or more embodiments, vehicle 1100 may be capable offunctionality in accordance with one or more of Level 1 through Level 5of autonomous driving levels. For example, in at least one embodiment,vehicle 1100 may be capable of conditional automation (Level 3), highautomation (Level 4), and/or full automation (Level 5), depending onembodiment.

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may include, withoutlimitation, components such as a chassis, a vehicle body, wheels (e.g.,2, 4, 6, 8, 18, etc.), tires, axles, and other components of a vehicle.In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may include, withoutlimitation, a propulsion system 1150, such as an internal combustionengine, hybrid electric power plant, an all-electric engine, and/oranother propulsion system type. In at least one embodiment, propulsionsystem 1150 may be connected to a drive train of vehicle 1100, which mayinclude, without limitation, a transmission, to enable propulsion ofvehicle 1100. In at least one embodiment, propulsion system 1150 may becontrolled in response to receiving signals from athrottle/accelerator(s) 1152.

In at least one embodiment, a steering system 1154, which may include,without limitation, a steering wheel, is used to steer vehicle 1100(e.g., along a desired path or route) when propulsion system 1150 isoperating (e.g., when vehicle 1100 is in motion). In at least oneembodiment, steering system 1154 may receive signals from steeringactuator(s) 1156. In at least one embodiment, a steering wheel may beoptional for full automation (Level 5) functionality. In at least oneembodiment, a brake sensor system 1146 may be used to operate vehiclebrakes in response to receiving signals from brake actuator(s) 1148and/or brake sensors.

In at least one embodiment, controller(s) 1136, which may include,without limitation, one or more system on chips (“SoCs”) (not shown inFIG. 11A) and/or graphics processing unit(s) (“GPU(s)”), provide signals(e.g., representative of commands) to one or more components and/orsystems of vehicle 1100. For instance, in at least one embodiment,controller(s) 1136 may send signals to operate vehicle brakes via brakeactuator(s) 1148, to operate steering system 1154 via steeringactuator(s) 1156, to operate propulsion system 1150 viathrottle/accelerator(s) 1152. In at least one embodiment, controller(s)1136 may include one or more onboard (e.g., integrated) computingdevices that process sensor signals, and output operation commands(e.g., signals representing commands) to enable autonomous drivingand/or to assist a human driver in driving vehicle 1100. In at least oneembodiment, controller(s) 1136 may include a first controller forautonomous driving functions, a second controller for functional safetyfunctions, a third controller for artificial intelligence functionality(e.g., computer vision), a fourth controller for infotainmentfunctionality, a fifth controller for redundancy in emergencyconditions, and/or other controllers. In at least one embodiment, asingle controller may handle two or more of above functionalities, twoor more controllers may handle a single functionality, and/or anycombination thereof.

In at least one embodiment, controller(s) 1136 provide signals forcontrolling one or more components and/or systems of vehicle 1100 inresponse to sensor data received from one or more sensors (e.g., sensorinputs). In at least one embodiment, sensor data may be received from,for example and without limitation, global navigation satellite systems(“GNSS”) sensor(s) 1158 (e.g., Global Positioning System sensor(s)),RADAR sensor(s) 1160, ultrasonic sensor(s) 1162, LIDAR sensor(s) 1164,inertial measurement unit (“IMU”) sensor(s) 1166 (e.g.,accelerometer(s), gyroscope(s), a magnetic compass or magneticcompasses, magnetometer(s), etc.), microphone(s) 1196, stereo camera(s)1168, wide-view camera(s) 1170 (e.g., fisheye cameras), infraredcamera(s) 1172, surround camera(s) 1174 (e.g., 360 degree cameras),long-range cameras (not shown in FIG. 11A), mid-range camera(s) (notshown in FIG. 11A), speed sensor(s) 1144 (e.g., for measuring speed ofvehicle 1100), vibration sensor(s) 1142, steering sensor(s) 1140, brakesensor(s) (e.g., as part of brake sensor system 1146), and/or othersensor types.

In at least one embodiment, one or more of controller(s) 1136 mayreceive inputs (e.g., represented by input data) from an instrumentcluster 1132 of vehicle 1100 and provide outputs (e.g., represented byoutput data, display data, etc.) via a human-machine interface (“HMI”)display 1134, an audible annunciator, a loudspeaker, and/or via othercomponents of vehicle 1100. In at least one embodiment, outputs mayinclude information such as vehicle velocity, speed, time, map data(e.g., a High Definition map (not shown in FIG. 11A), location data(e.g., vehicle's 1100 location, such as on a map), direction, locationof other vehicles (e.g., an occupancy grid), information about objectsand status of objects as perceived by controller(s) 1136, etc. Forexample, in at least one embodiment, HMI display 1134 may displayinformation about presence of one or more objects (e.g., a street sign,caution sign, traffic light changing, etc.), and/or information aboutdriving maneuvers vehicle has made, is making, or will make (e.g.,changing lanes now, taking exit 34B in two miles, etc.).

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 further includes a networkinterface 1124 which may use wireless antenna(s) 1126 and/or modem(s) tocommunicate over one or more networks. For example, in at least oneembodiment, network interface 1124 may be capable of communication overLong-Term Evolution (“LTE”), Wideband Code Division Multiple Access(“WCDMA”), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (“UMTS”), GlobalSystem for Mobile communication (“GSM”), IMT-CDMA Multi-Carrier(“CDMA2000”) networks, etc. In at least one embodiment, wirelessantenna(s) 1126 may also enable communication between objects inenvironment (e.g., vehicles, mobile devices, etc.), using local areanetwork(s), such as Bluetooth, Bluetooth Low Energy (“LE”), Z-Wave,ZigBee, etc., and/or low power wide-area network(s) (“LPWANs”), such asLoRaWAN, SigFox, etc. Protocols.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 may be used in systemFIG. 11A for inferencing or predicting operations based, at least inpart, on weight parameters calculated using neural network trainingoperations, neural network functions and/or architectures, or neuralnetwork use cases described herein.

FIG. 11B illustrates an example of camera locations and fields of viewfor autonomous vehicle 1100 of FIG. 11A, according to at least oneembodiment. In at least one embodiment, cameras and respective fields ofview are one example embodiment and are not intended to be limiting. Forinstance, in at least one embodiment, additional and/or alternativecameras may be included and/or cameras may be located at differentlocations on vehicle 1100.

In at least one embodiment, camera types for cameras may include, butare not limited to, digital cameras that may be adapted for use withcomponents and/or systems of vehicle 1100. In at least one embodiment,camera(s) may operate at automotive safety integrity level (“ASIL”) Band/or at another ASIL. In at least one embodiment, camera types may becapable of any image capture rate, such as 60 frames per second (fps),1220 fps, 240 fps, etc., depending on embodiment. In at least oneembodiment, cameras may be capable of using rolling shutters, globalshutters, another type of shutter, or a combination thereof. In at leastone embodiment, color filter array may include a red clear clear clear(“RCCC”) color filter array, a red clear clear blue (“RCCB”) colorfilter array, a red blue green clear (“RBGC”) color filter array, aFoveon X3 color filter array, a Bayer sensors (“RGGB”) color filterarray, a monochrome sensor color filter array, and/or another type ofcolor filter array. In at least one embodiment, clear pixel cameras,such as cameras with an RCCC, an RCCB, and/or an RBGC color filterarray, may be used in an effort to increase light sensitivity.

In at least one embodiment, one or more of camera(s) may be used toperform advanced driver assistance systems (“ADAS”) functions (e.g., aspart of a redundant or fail-safe design). For example, in at least oneembodiment, a Multi-Function Mono Camera may be installed to providefunctions including lane departure warning, traffic sign assist andintelligent headlamp control. In at least one embodiment, one or more ofcamera(s) (e.g., all cameras) may record and provide image data (e.g.,video) simultaneously.

In at least one embodiment, one or more camera may be mounted in amounting assembly, such as a custom designed (three-dimensional (“3D”)printed) assembly, in order to cut out stray light and reflections fromwithin vehicle 1100 (e.g., reflections from dashboard reflected inwindshield mirrors) which may interfere with camera image data captureabilities. With reference to wing-mirror mounting assemblies, in atleast one embodiment, wing-mirror assemblies may be custom 3D printed sothat a camera mounting plate matches a shape of a wing-mirror. In atleast one embodiment, camera(s) may be integrated into wing-mirrors. Inat least one embodiment, for side-view cameras, camera(s) may also beintegrated within four pillars at each corner of a cabin.

In at least one embodiment, cameras with a field of view that includeportions of an environment in front of vehicle 1100 (e.g., front-facingcameras) may be used for surround view, to help identify forward facingpaths and obstacles, as well as aid in, with help of one or more ofcontroller(s) 1136 and/or control SoCs, providing information criticalto generating an occupancy grid and/or determining preferred vehiclepaths. In at least one embodiment, front-facing cameras may be used toperform many similar ADAS functions as LIDAR, including, withoutlimitation, emergency braking, pedestrian detection, and collisionavoidance. In at least one embodiment, front-facing cameras may also beused for ADAS functions and systems including, without limitation, LaneDeparture Warnings (“LDW”), Autonomous Cruise Control (“ACC”), and/orother functions such as traffic sign recognition.

In at least one embodiment, a variety of cameras may be used in afront-facing configuration, including, for example, a monocular cameraplatform that includes a CMOS (“complementary metal oxidesemiconductor”) color imager. In at least one embodiment, a wide-viewcamera 1170 may be used to perceive objects coming into view from aperiphery (e.g., pedestrians, crossing traffic or bicycles). Althoughonly one wide-view camera 1170 is illustrated in FIG. 11B, in otherembodiments, there may be any number (including zero) wide-view camerason vehicle 1100. In at least one embodiment, any number of long-rangecamera(s) 1198 (e.g., a long-view stereo camera pair) may be used fordepth-based object detection, especially for objects for which a neuralnetwork has not yet been trained. In at least one embodiment, long-rangecamera(s) 1198 may also be used for object detection and classification,as well as basic object tracking.

In at least one embodiment, any number of stereo camera(s) 1168 may alsobe included in a front-facing configuration. In at least one embodiment,one or more of stereo camera(s) 1168 may include an integrated controlunit comprising a scalable processing unit, which may provide aprogrammable logic (“FPGA”) and a multi-core micro-processor with anintegrated Controller Area Network (“CAN”) or Ethernet interface on asingle chip. In at least one embodiment, such a unit may be used togenerate a 3D map of an environment of vehicle 1100, including adistance estimate for all points in an image. In at least oneembodiment, one or more of stereo camera(s) 1168 may include, withoutlimitation, compact stereo vision sensor(s) that may include, withoutlimitation, two camera lenses (one each on left and right) and an imageprocessing chip that may measure distance from vehicle 1100 to targetobject and use generated information (e.g., metadata) to activateautonomous emergency braking and lane departure warning functions. In atleast one embodiment, other types of stereo camera(s) 1168 may be usedin addition to, or alternatively from, those described herein.

In at least one embodiment, cameras with a field of view that includeportions of environment to sides of vehicle 1100 (e.g., side-viewcameras) may be used for surround view, providing information used tocreate and update an occupancy grid, as well as to generate side impactcollision warnings. For example, in at least one embodiment, surroundcamera(s) 1174 (e.g., four surround cameras as illustrated in FIG. 11B)could be positioned on vehicle 1100. In at least one embodiment,surround camera(s) 1174 may include, without limitation, any number andcombination of wide-view cameras, fisheye camera(s), 360 degreecamera(s), and/or similar cameras. For instance, in at least oneembodiment, four fisheye cameras may be positioned on a front, a rear,and sides of vehicle 1100. In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 mayuse three surround camera(s) 1174 (e.g., left, right, and rear), and mayleverage one or more other camera(s) (e.g., a forward-facing camera) asa fourth surround-view camera.

In at least one embodiment, cameras with a field of view that includeportions of an environment behind vehicle 1100 (e.g., rear-view cameras)may be used for parking assistance, surround view, rear collisionwarnings, and creating and updating an occupancy grid. In at least oneembodiment, a wide variety of cameras may be used including, but notlimited to, cameras that are also suitable as a front-facing camera(s)(e.g., long-range cameras 1198 and/or mid-range camera(s) 1176, stereocamera(s) 1168), infrared camera(s) 1172, etc.), as described herein.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 may be used in systemFIG. 11B for inferencing or predicting operations based, at least inpart, on weight parameters calculated using neural network trainingoperations, neural network functions and/or architectures, or neuralnetwork use cases described herein.

FIG. 11C is a block diagram illustrating an example system architecturefor autonomous vehicle 1100 of FIG. 11A, according to at least oneembodiment. In at least one embodiment, each of components, features,and systems of vehicle 1100 in FIG. 11C is illustrated as beingconnected via a bus 1102. In at least one embodiment, bus 1102 mayinclude, without limitation, a CAN data interface (alternativelyreferred to herein as a “CAN bus”). In at least one embodiment, a CANmay be a network inside vehicle 1100 used to aid in control of variousfeatures and functionality of vehicle 1100, such as actuation of brakes,acceleration, braking, steering, windshield wipers, etc. In at least oneembodiment, bus 1102 may be configured to have dozens or even hundredsof nodes, each with its own unique identifier (e.g., a CAN ID). In atleast one embodiment, bus 1102 may be read to find steering wheel angle,ground speed, engine revolutions per minute (“RPMs”), button positions,and/or other vehicle status indicators. In at least one embodiment, bus1102 may be a CAN bus that is ASIL B compliant.

In at least one embodiment, in addition to, or alternatively from CAN,FlexRay and/or Ethernet protocols may be used. In at least oneembodiment, there may be any number of busses forming bus 1102, whichmay include, without limitation, zero or more CAN busses, zero or moreFlexRay busses, zero or more Ethernet busses, and/or zero or more othertypes of busses using different protocols. In at least one embodiment,two or more busses may be used to perform different functions, and/ormay be used for redundancy. For example, a first bus may be used forcollision avoidance functionality and a second bus may be used foractuation control. In at least one embodiment, each bus of bus 1102 maycommunicate with any of components of vehicle 1100, and two or morebusses of bus 1102 may communicate with corresponding components. In atleast one embodiment, each of any number of system(s) on chip(s)(“SoC(s)”) 1104 (such as SoC 1104(A) and SoC 1104(B), each ofcontroller(s) 1136, and/or each computer within vehicle may have accessto same input data (e.g., inputs from sensors of vehicle 1100), and maybe connected to a common bus, such CAN bus.

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may include one or morecontroller(s) 1136, such as those described herein with respect to FIG.11A. In at least one embodiment, controller(s) 1136 may be used for avariety of functions. In at least one embodiment, controller(s) 1136 maybe coupled to any of various other components and systems of vehicle1100, and may be used for control of vehicle 1100, artificialintelligence of vehicle 1100, infotainment for vehicle 1100, and/orother functions.

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may include any number of SoCs1104. In at least one embodiment, each of SoCs 1104 may include, withoutlimitation, central processing units (“CPU(s)”) 1106, graphicsprocessing units (“GPU(s)”) 1108, processor(s) 1110, cache(s) 1112,accelerator(s) 1114, data store(s) 1116, and/or other components andfeatures not illustrated. In at least one embodiment, SoC(s) 1104 may beused to control vehicle 1100 in a variety of platforms and systems. Forexample, in at least one embodiment, SoC(s) 1104 may be combined in asystem (e.g., system of vehicle 1100) with a High Definition (“HD”) map1122 which may obtain map refreshes and/or updates via network interface1124 from one or more servers (not shown in FIG. 11C).

In at least one embodiment, CPU(s) 1106 may include a CPU cluster or CPUcomplex (alternatively referred to herein as a “CCPLEX”). In at leastone embodiment, CPU(s) 1106 may include multiple cores and/or level two(“L2”) caches. For instance, in at least one embodiment, CPU(s) 1106 mayinclude eight cores in a coherent multi-processor configuration. In atleast one embodiment, CPU(s) 1106 may include four dual-core clusterswhere each cluster has a dedicated L2 cache (e.g., a 2 megabyte (MB) L2cache). In at least one embodiment, CPU(s) 1106 (e.g., CCPLEX) may beconfigured to support simultaneous cluster operations enabling anycombination of clusters of CPU(s) 1106 to be active at any given time.

In at least one embodiment, one or more of CPU(s) 1106 may implementpower management capabilities that include, without limitation, one ormore of following features: individual hardware blocks may beclock-gated automatically when idle to save dynamic power; each coreclock may be gated when such core is not actively executing instructionsdue to execution of Wait for Interrupt (“WFI”)/Wait for Event (“WFE”)instructions; each core may be independently power-gated; each corecluster may be independently clock-gated when all cores are clock-gatedor power-gated; and/or each core cluster may be independentlypower-gated when all cores are power-gated. In at least one embodiment,CPU(s) 1106 may further implement an enhanced algorithm for managingpower states, where allowed power states and expected wakeup times arespecified, and hardware/microcode determines which best power state toenter for core, cluster, and CCPLEX. In at least one embodiment,processing cores may support simplified power state entry sequences insoftware with work offloaded to microcode.

In at least one embodiment, GPU(s) 1108 may include an integrated GPU(alternatively referred to herein as an “iGPU”). In at least oneembodiment, GPU(s) 1108 may be programmable and may be efficient forparallel workloads. In at least one embodiment, GPU(s) 1108 may use anenhanced tensor instruction set. In on embodiment, GPU(s) 1108 mayinclude one or more streaming microprocessors, where each streamingmicroprocessor may include a level one (“L1”) cache (e.g., an L1 cachewith at least 96 KB storage capacity), and two or more streamingmicroprocessors may share an L2 cache (e.g., an L2 cache with a 512 KBstorage capacity). In at least one embodiment, GPU(s) 1108 may includeat least eight streaming microprocessors. In at least one embodiment,GPU(s) 1108 may use compute application programming interface(s)(API(s)). In at least one embodiment, GPU(s) 1108 may use one or moreparallel computing platforms and/or programming models (e.g., NVIDIA'sCUDA model).

In at least one embodiment, one or more of GPU(s) 1108 may bepower-optimized for best performance in automotive and embedded usecases. For example, in one embodiment, GPU(s) 1108 could be fabricatedon Fin field-effect transistor (“FinFET”) circuitry. In at least oneembodiment, each streaming microprocessor may incorporate a number ofmixed-precision processing cores partitioned into multiple blocks. Forexample, and without limitation, 64 PF32 cores and 32 PF64 cores couldbe partitioned into four processing blocks. In at least one embodiment,each processing block could be allocated 16 FP32 cores, 8 FP64 cores, 16INT32 cores, two mixed-precision NVIDIA Tensor cores for deep learningmatrix arithmetic, a level zero (“L0”) instruction cache, a warpscheduler, a dispatch unit, and/or a 64 KB register file. In at leastone embodiment, streaming microprocessors may include independentparallel integer and floating-point data paths to provide for efficientexecution of workloads with a mix of computation and addressingcalculations. In at least one embodiment, streaming microprocessors mayinclude independent thread scheduling capability to enable finer-grainsynchronization and cooperation between parallel threads. In at leastone embodiment, streaming microprocessors may include a combined L1 datacache and shared memory unit in order to improve performance whilesimplifying programming.

In at least one embodiment, one or more of GPU(s) 1108 may include ahigh bandwidth memory (“HBM) and/or a 16 GB HBM2 memory subsystem toprovide, in some examples, about 900 GB/second peak memory bandwidth. Inat least one embodiment, in addition to, or alternatively from, HBMmemory, a synchronous graphics random-access memory (“SGRAM”) may beused, such as a graphics double data rate type five synchronousrandom-access memory (“GDDR5”).

In at least one embodiment, GPU(s) 1108 may include unified memorytechnology. In at least one embodiment, address translation services(“ATS”) support may be used to allow GPU(s) 1108 to access CPU(s) 1106page tables directly. In at least one embodiment, embodiment, when a GPUof GPU(s) 1108 memory management unit (“MMU”) experiences a miss, anaddress translation request may be transmitted to CPU(s) 1106. Inresponse, 2 CPU of CPU(s) 1106 may look in its page tables for avirtual-to-physical mapping for an address and transmit translation backto GPU(s) 1108, in at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment,unified memory technology may allow a single unified virtual addressspace for memory of both CPU(s) 1106 and GPU(s) 1108, therebysimplifying GPU(s) 1108 programming and porting of applications toGPU(s) 1108.

In at least one embodiment, GPU(s) 1108 may include any number of accesscounters that may keep track of frequency of access of GPU(s) 1108 tomemory of other processors. In at least one embodiment, accesscounter(s) may help ensure that memory pages are moved to physicalmemory of a processor that is accessing pages most frequently, therebyimproving efficiency for memory ranges shared between processors.

In at least one embodiment, one or more of SoC(s) 1104 may include anynumber of cache(s) 1112, including those described herein. For example,in at least one embodiment, cache(s) 1112 could include a level three(“L3”) cache that is available to both CPU(s) 1106 and GPU(s) 1108(e.g., that is connected to CPU(s) 1106 and GPU(s) 1108). In at leastone embodiment, cache(s) 1112 may include a write-back cache that maykeep track of states of lines, such as by using a cache coherenceprotocol (e.g., MEI, MESI, MSI, etc.). In at least one embodiment, a L3cache may include 4 MB of memory or more, depending on embodiment,although smaller cache sizes may be used.

In at least one embodiment, one or more of SoC(s) 1104 may include oneor more accelerator(s) 1114 (e.g., hardware accelerators, softwareaccelerators, or a combination thereof). In at least one embodiment,SoC(s) 1104 may include a hardware acceleration cluster that may includeoptimized hardware accelerators and/or large on-chip memory. In at leastone embodiment, large on-chip memory (e.g., 4 MB of SRAM), may enable ahardware acceleration cluster to accelerate neural networks and othercalculations. In at least one embodiment, a hardware accelerationcluster may be used to complement GPU(s) 1108 and to off-load some oftasks of GPU(s) 1108 (e.g., to free up more cycles of GPU(s) 1108 forperforming other tasks). In at least one embodiment, accelerator(s) 1114could be used for targeted workloads (e.g., perception, convolutionalneural networks (“CNNs”), recurrent neural networks (“RNNs”), etc.) thatare stable enough to be amenable to acceleration. In at least oneembodiment, a CNN may include a region-based or regional convolutionalneural networks (“RCNNs”) and Fast RCNNs (e.g., as used for objectdetection) or other type of CNN.

In at least one embodiment, accelerator(s) 1114 (e.g., hardwareacceleration cluster) may include one or more deep learning accelerator(“DLA”). In at least one embodiment, DLA(s) may include, withoutlimitation, one or more Tensor processing units (“TPUs”) that may beconfigured to provide an additional ten trillion operations per secondfor deep learning applications and inferencing. In at least oneembodiment, TPUs may be accelerators configured to, and optimized for,performing image processing functions (e.g., for CNNs, RCNNs, etc.). Inat least one embodiment, DLA(s) may further be optimized for a specificset of neural network types and floating point operations, as well asinferencing. In at least one embodiment, design of DLA(s) may providemore performance per millimeter than a typical general-purpose GPU, andtypically vastly exceeds performance of a CPU. In at least oneembodiment, TPU(s) may perform several functions, including asingle-instance convolution function, supporting, for example, INT8,INT16, and FP16 data types for both features and weights, as well aspost-processor functions. In at least one embodiment, DLA(s) may quicklyand efficiently execute neural networks, especially CNNs, on processedor unprocessed data for any of a variety of functions, including, forexample and without limitation: a CNN for object identification anddetection using data from camera sensors; a CNN for distance estimationusing data from camera sensors; a CNN for emergency vehicle detectionand identification and detection using data from microphones; a CNN forfacial recognition and vehicle owner identification using data fromcamera sensors; and/or a CNN for security and/or safety related events.

In at least one embodiment, DLA(s) may perform any function of GPU(s)1108, and by using an inference accelerator, for example, a designer maytarget either DLA(s) or GPU(s) 1108 for any function. For example, in atleast one embodiment, a designer may focus processing of CNNs andfloating point operations on DLA(s) and leave other functions to GPU(s)1108 and/or accelerator(s) 1114.

In at least one embodiment, accelerator(s) 1114 may include programmablevision accelerator (“PVA”), which may alternatively be referred toherein as a computer vision accelerator. In at least one embodiment, PVAmay be designed and configured to accelerate computer vision algorithmsfor advanced driver assistance system (“ADAS”) 1138, autonomous driving,augmented reality (“AR”) applications, and/or virtual reality (“VR”)applications. In at least one embodiment, PVA may provide a balancebetween performance and flexibility. For example, in at least oneembodiment, each PVA may include, for example and without limitation,any number of reduced instruction set computer (“RISC”) cores, directmemory access (“DMA”), and/or any number of vector processors.

In at least one embodiment, RISC cores may interact with image sensors(e.g., image sensors of any cameras described herein), image signalprocessor(s), etc. In at least one embodiment, each RISC core mayinclude any amount of memory. In at least one embodiment, RISC cores mayuse any of a number of protocols, depending on embodiment. In at leastone embodiment, RISC cores may execute a real-time operating system(“RTOS”). In at least one embodiment, RISC cores may be implementedusing one or more integrated circuit devices, application specificintegrated circuits (“ASICs”), and/or memory devices. For example, in atleast one embodiment, RISC cores could include an instruction cacheand/or a tightly coupled RAM.

In at least one embodiment, DMA may enable components of PVA to accesssystem memory independently of CPU(s) 1106. In at least one embodiment,DMA may support any number of features used to provide optimization to aPVA including, but not limited to, supporting multi-dimensionaladdressing and/or circular addressing. In at least one embodiment, DMAmay support up to six or more dimensions of addressing, which mayinclude, without limitation, block width, block height, block depth,horizontal block stepping, vertical block stepping, and/or depthstepping.

In at least one embodiment, vector processors may be programmableprocessors that may be designed to efficiently and flexibly executeprogramming for computer vision algorithms and provide signal processingcapabilities. In at least one embodiment, a PVA may include a PVA coreand two vector processing subsystem partitions. In at least oneembodiment, a PVA core may include a processor subsystem, DMA engine(s)(e.g., two DMA engines), and/or other peripherals. In at least oneembodiment, a vector processing subsystem may operate as a primaryprocessing engine of a PVA, and may include a vector processing unit(“VPU”), an instruction cache, and/or vector memory (e.g., “VMEM”). Inat least one embodiment, VPU core may include a digital signal processorsuch as, for example, a single instruction, multiple data (“SIMD”), verylong instruction word (“VLIW”) digital signal processor. In at least oneembodiment, a combination of SIMD and VLIW may enhance throughput andspeed.

In at least one embodiment, each of vector processors may include aninstruction cache and may be coupled to dedicated memory. As a result,in at least one embodiment, each of vector processors may be configuredto execute independently of other vector processors. In at least oneembodiment, vector processors that are included in a particular PVA maybe configured to employ data parallelism. For instance, in at least oneembodiment, plurality of vector processors included in a single PVA mayexecute a common computer vision algorithm, but on different regions ofan image. In at least one embodiment, vector processors included in aparticular PVA may simultaneously execute different computer visionalgorithms, on one image, or even execute different algorithms onsequential images or portions of an image. In at least one embodiment,among other things, any number of PVAs may be included in hardwareacceleration cluster and any number of vector processors may be includedin each PVA. In at least one embodiment, PVA may include additionalerror correcting code (“ECC”) memory, to enhance overall system safety.

In at least one embodiment, accelerator(s) 1114 may include a computervision network on-chip and static random-access memory (“SRAM”), forproviding a high-bandwidth, low latency SRAM for accelerator(s) 1114. Inat least one embodiment, on-chip memory may include at least 4 MB SRAM,comprising, for example and without limitation, eight field-configurablememory blocks, that may be accessible by both a PVA and a DLA. In atleast one embodiment, each pair of memory blocks may include an advancedperipheral bus (“APB”) interface, configuration circuitry, a controller,and a multiplexer. In at least one embodiment, any type of memory may beused. In at least one embodiment, a PVA and a DLA may access memory viaa backbone that provides a PVA and a DLA with high-speed access tomemory. In at least one embodiment, a backbone may include a computervision network on-chip that interconnects a PVA and a DLA to memory(e.g., using APB).

In at least one embodiment, a computer vision network on-chip mayinclude an interface that determines, before transmission of any controlsignal/address/data, that both a PVA and a DLA provide ready and validsignals. In at least one embodiment, an interface may provide forseparate phases and separate channels for transmitting controlsignals/addresses/data, as well as burst-type communications forcontinuous data transfer. In at least one embodiment, an interface maycomply with International Organization for Standardization (“ISO”) 26262or International Electrotechnical Commission (“IEC”) 61508 standards,although other standards and protocols may be used.

In at least one embodiment, one or more of SoC(s) 1104 may include areal-time ray-tracing hardware accelerator. In at least one embodiment,real-time ray-tracing hardware accelerator may be used to quickly andefficiently determine positions and extents of objects (e.g., within aworld model), to generate real-time visualization simulations, for RADARsignal interpretation, for sound propagation synthesis and/or analysis,for simulation of SONAR systems, for general wave propagationsimulation, for comparison to LIDAR data for purposes of localizationand/or other functions, and/or for other uses.

In at least one embodiment, accelerator(s) 1114 can have a wide array ofuses for autonomous driving. In at least one embodiment, a PVA may beused for key processing stages in ADAS and autonomous vehicles. In atleast one embodiment, a PVA's capabilities are a good match foralgorithmic domains needing predictable processing, at low power and lowlatency. In other words, a PVA performs well on semi-dense or denseregular computation, even on small data sets, which might requirepredictable run-times with low latency and low power. In at least oneembodiment, such as in vehicle 1100, PVAs might be designed to runclassic computer vision algorithms, as they can be efficient at objectdetection and operating on integer math.

For example, according to at least one embodiment of technology, a PVAis used to perform computer stereo vision. In at least one embodiment, asemi-global matching-based algorithm may be used in some examples,although this is not intended to be limiting. In at least oneembodiment, applications for Level 3-5 autonomous driving use motionestimation/stereo matching on-the-fly (e.g., structure from motion,pedestrian recognition, lane detection, etc.). In at least oneembodiment, a PVA may perform computer stereo vision functions on inputsfrom two monocular cameras.

In at least one embodiment, a PVA may be used to perform dense opticalflow. For example, in at least one embodiment, a PVA could process rawRADAR data (e.g., using a 4D Fast Fourier Transform) to provideprocessed RADAR data. In at least one embodiment, a PVA is used for timeof flight depth processing, by processing raw time of flight data toprovide processed time of flight data, for example.

In at least one embodiment, a DLA may be used to run any type of networkto enhance control and driving safety, including for example and withoutlimitation, a neural network that outputs a measure of confidence foreach object detection. In at least one embodiment, confidence may berepresented or interpreted as a probability, or as providing a relative“weight” of each detection compared to other detections. In at least oneembodiment, a confidence measure enables a system to make furtherdecisions regarding which detections should be considered as truepositive detections rather than false positive detections. In at leastone embodiment, a system may set a threshold value for confidence andconsider only detections exceeding threshold value as true positivedetections. In an embodiment in which an automatic emergency braking(“AEB”) system is used, false positive detections would cause vehicle toautomatically perform emergency braking, which is obviously undesirable.In at least one embodiment, highly confident detections may beconsidered as triggers for AEB. In at least one embodiment, a DLA mayrun a neural network for regressing confidence value. In at least oneembodiment, neural network may take as its input at least some subset ofparameters, such as bounding box dimensions, ground plane estimateobtained (e.g., from another subsystem), output from IMU sensor(s) 1166that correlates with vehicle 1100 orientation, distance, 3D locationestimates of object obtained from neural network and/or other sensors(e.g., LIDAR sensor(s) 1164 or RADAR sensor(s) 1160), among others.

In at least one embodiment, one or more of SoC(s) 1104 may include datastore(s) 1116 (e.g., memory). In at least one embodiment, data store(s)1116 may be on-chip memory of SoC(s) 1104, which may store neuralnetworks to be executed on GPU(s) 1108 and/or a DLA. In at least oneembodiment, data store(s) 1116 may be large enough in capacity to storemultiple instances of neural networks for redundancy and safety. In atleast one embodiment, data store(s) 1116 may comprise L2 or L3 cache(s).

In at least one embodiment, one or more of SoC(s) 1104 may include anynumber of processor(s) 1110 (e.g., embedded processors). In at least oneembodiment, processor(s) 1110 may include a boot and power managementprocessor that may be a dedicated processor and subsystem to handle bootpower and management functions and related security enforcement. In atleast one embodiment, a boot and power management processor may be apart of a boot sequence of SoC(s) 1104 and may provide runtime powermanagement services. In at least one embodiment, a boot power andmanagement processor may provide clock and voltage programming,assistance in system low power state transitions, management of SoC(s)1104 thermals and temperature sensors, and/or management of SoC(s) 1104power states. In at least one embodiment, each temperature sensor may beimplemented as a ring-oscillator whose output frequency is proportionalto temperature, and SoC(s) 1104 may use ring-oscillators to detecttemperatures of CPU(s) 1106, GPU(s) 1108, and/or accelerator(s) 1114. Inat least one embodiment, if temperatures are determined to exceed athreshold, then a boot and power management processor may enter atemperature fault routine and put SoC(s) 1104 into a lower power stateand/or put vehicle 1100 into a chauffeur to safe stop mode (e.g., bringvehicle 1100 to a safe stop).

In at least one embodiment, processor(s) 1110 may further include a setof embedded processors that may serve as an audio processing enginewhich may be an audio subsystem that enables full hardware support formulti-channel audio over multiple interfaces, and a broad and flexiblerange of audio I/O interfaces. In at least one embodiment, an audioprocessing engine is a dedicated processor core with a digital signalprocessor with dedicated RAM.

In at least one embodiment, processor(s) 1110 may further include analways-on processor engine that may provide necessary hardware featuresto support low power sensor management and wake use cases. In at leastone embodiment, an always-on processor engine may include, withoutlimitation, a processor core, a tightly coupled RAM, supportingperipherals (e.g., timers and interrupt controllers), various I/Ocontroller peripherals, and routing logic.

In at least one embodiment, processor(s) 1110 may further include asafety cluster engine that includes, without limitation, a dedicatedprocessor subsystem to handle safety management for automotiveapplications. In at least one embodiment, a safety cluster engine mayinclude, without limitation, two or more processor cores, a tightlycoupled RAM, support peripherals (e.g., timers, an interrupt controller,etc.), and/or routing logic. In a safety mode, two or more cores mayoperate, in at least one embodiment, in a lockstep mode and function asa single core with comparison logic to detect any differences betweentheir operations. In at least one embodiment, processor(s) 1110 mayfurther include a real-time camera engine that may include, withoutlimitation, a dedicated processor subsystem for handling real-timecamera management. In at least one embodiment, processor(s) 1110 mayfurther include a high-dynamic range signal processor that may include,without limitation, an image signal processor that is a hardware enginethat is part of a camera processing pipeline.

In at least one embodiment, processor(s) 1110 may include a video imagecompositor that may be a processing block (e.g., implemented on amicroprocessor) that implements video post-processing functions neededby a video playback application to produce a final image for a playerwindow. In at least one embodiment, a video image compositor may performlens distortion correction on wide-view camera(s) 1170, surroundcamera(s) 1174, and/or on in-cabin monitoring camera sensor(s). In atleast one embodiment, in-cabin monitoring camera sensor(s) arepreferably monitored by a neural network running on another instance ofSoC 1104, configured to identify in cabin events and respondaccordingly. In at least one embodiment, an in-cabin system may perform,without limitation, lip reading to activate cellular service and place aphone call, dictate emails, change a vehicle's destination, activate orchange a vehicle's infotainment system and settings, or providevoice-activated web surfing. In at least one embodiment, certainfunctions are available to a driver when a vehicle is operating in anautonomous mode and are disabled otherwise.

In at least one embodiment, a video image compositor may includeenhanced temporal noise reduction for both spatial and temporal noisereduction. For example, in at least one embodiment, where motion occursin a video, noise reduction weights spatial information appropriately,decreasing weights of information provided by adjacent frames. In atleast one embodiment, where an image or portion of an image does notinclude motion, temporal noise reduction performed by video imagecompositor may use information from a previous image to reduce noise ina current image.

In at least one embodiment, a video image compositor may also beconfigured to perform stereo rectification on input stereo lens frames.In at least one embodiment, a video image compositor may further be usedfor user interface composition when an operating system desktop is inuse, and GPU(s) 1108 are not required to continuously render newsurfaces. In at least one embodiment, when GPU(s) 1108 are powered onand active doing 3D rendering, a video image compositor may be used tooffload GPU(s) 1108 to improve performance and responsiveness.

In at least one embodiment, one or more SoC of SoC(s) 1104 may furtherinclude a mobile industry processor interface (“MIPI”) camera serialinterface for receiving video and input from cameras, a high-speedinterface, and/or a video input block that may be used for a camera andrelated pixel input functions. In at least one embodiment, one or moreof SoC(s) 1104 may further include an input/output controller(s) thatmay be controlled by software and may be used for receiving I/O signalsthat are uncommitted to a specific role.

In at least one embodiment, one or more Soc of SoC(s) 1104 may furtherinclude a broad range of peripheral interfaces to enable communicationwith peripherals, audio encoders/decoders (“codecs”), power management,and/or other devices. In at least one embodiment, SoC(s) 1104 may beused to process data from cameras (e.g., connected over GigabitMultimedia Serial Link and Ethernet channels), sensors (e.g., LIDARsensor(s) 1164, RADAR sensor(s) 1160, etc. that may be connected overEthernet channels), data from bus 1102 (e.g., speed of vehicle 1100,steering wheel position, etc.), data from GNSS sensor(s) 1158 (e.g.,connected over a Ethernet bus or a CAN bus), etc. In at least oneembodiment, one or more SoC of SoC(s) 1104 may further include dedicatedhigh-performance mass storage controllers that may include their own DMAengines, and that may be used to free CPU(s) 1106 from routine datamanagement tasks.

In at least one embodiment, SoC(s) 1104 may be an end-to-end platformwith a flexible architecture that spans automation Levels 3-5, therebyproviding a comprehensive functional safety architecture that leveragesand makes efficient use of computer vision and ADAS techniques fordiversity and redundancy, and provides a platform for a flexible,reliable driving software stack, along with deep learning tools. In atleast one embodiment, SoC(s) 1104 may be faster, more reliable, and evenmore energy-efficient and space-efficient than conventional systems. Forexample, in at least one embodiment, accelerator(s) 1114, when combinedwith CPU(s) 1106, GPU(s) 1108, and data store(s) 1116, may provide for afast, efficient platform for Level 3-5 autonomous vehicles.

In at least one embodiment, computer vision algorithms may be executedon CPUs, which may be configured using a high-level programminglanguage, such as C, to execute a wide variety of processing algorithmsacross a wide variety of visual data. However, in at least oneembodiment, CPUs are oftentimes unable to meet performance requirementsof many computer vision applications, such as those related to executiontime and power consumption, for example. In at least one embodiment,many CPUs are unable to execute complex object detection algorithms inreal-time, which is used in in-vehicle ADAS applications and inpractical Level 3-5 autonomous vehicles.

Embodiments described herein allow for multiple neural networks to beperformed simultaneously and/or sequentially, and for results to becombined together to enable Level 3-5 autonomous driving functionality.For example, in at least one embodiment, a CNN executing on a DLA or adiscrete GPU (e.g., GPU(s) 1120) may include text and word recognition,allowing reading and understanding of traffic signs, including signs forwhich a neural network has not been specifically trained. In at leastone embodiment, a DLA may further include a neural network that is ableto identify, interpret, and provide semantic understanding of a sign,and to pass that semantic understanding to path planning modules runningon a CPU Complex.

In at least one embodiment, multiple neural networks may be runsimultaneously, as for Level 3, 4, or 5 driving. For example, in atleast one embodiment, a warning sign stating “Caution: flashing lightsindicate icy conditions,” along with an electric light, may beindependently or collectively interpreted by several neural networks. Inat least one embodiment, such warning sign itself may be identified as atraffic sign by a first deployed neural network (e.g., a neural networkthat has been trained), text “flashing lights indicate icy conditions”may be interpreted by a second deployed neural network, which informs avehicle's path planning software (preferably executing on a CPU Complex)that when flashing lights are detected, icy conditions exist. In atleast one embodiment, a flashing light may be identified by operating athird deployed neural network over multiple frames, informing avehicle's path-planning software of a presence (or an absence) offlashing lights. In at least one embodiment, all three neural networksmay run simultaneously, such as within a DLA and/or on GPU(s) 1108.

In at least one embodiment, a CNN for facial recognition and vehicleowner identification may use data from camera sensors to identifypresence of an authorized driver and/or owner of vehicle 1100. In atleast one embodiment, an always-on sensor processing engine may be usedto unlock a vehicle when an owner approaches a driver door and turns onlights, and, in a security mode, to disable such vehicle when an ownerleaves such vehicle. In this way, SoC(s) 1104 provide for securityagainst theft and/or carjacking.

In at least one embodiment, a CNN for emergency vehicle detection andidentification may use data from microphones 1196 to detect and identifyemergency vehicle sirens. In at least one embodiment, SoC(s) 1104 use aCNN for classifying environmental and urban sounds, as well asclassifying visual data. In at least one embodiment, a CNN running on aDLA is trained to identify a relative closing speed of an emergencyvehicle (e.g., by using a Doppler effect). In at least one embodiment, aCNN may also be trained to identify emergency vehicles specific to alocal area in which a vehicle is operating, as identified by GNSSsensor(s) 1158. In at least one embodiment, when operating in Europe, aCNN will seek to detect European sirens, and when in North America, aCNN will seek to identify only North American sirens. In at least oneembodiment, once an emergency vehicle is detected, a control program maybe used to execute an emergency vehicle safety routine, slowing avehicle, pulling over to a side of a road, parking a vehicle, and/oridling a vehicle, with assistance of ultrasonic sensor(s) 1162, untilemergency vehicles pass.

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may include CPU(s) 1118 (e.g.,discrete CPU(s), or dCPU(s)), that may be coupled to SoC(s) 1104 via ahigh-speed interconnect (e.g., PCIe). In at least one embodiment, CPU(s)1118 may include an X86 processor, for example. CPU(s) 1118 may be usedto perform any of a variety of functions, including arbitratingpotentially inconsistent results between ADAS sensors and SoC(s) 1104,and/or monitoring status and health of controller(s) 1136 and/or aninfotainment system on a chip (“infotainment SoC”) 1130, for example.

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may include GPU(s) 1120 (e.g.,discrete GPU(s), or dGPU(s)), that may be coupled to SoC(s) 1104 via ahigh-speed interconnect (e.g., NVIDIA's NVLINK channel). In at least oneembodiment, GPU(s) 1120 may provide additional artificial intelligencefunctionality, such as by executing redundant and/or different neuralnetworks, and may be used to train and/or update neural networks basedat least in part on input (e.g., sensor data) from sensors of a vehicle1100.

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may further include networkinterface 1124 which may include, without limitation, wirelessantenna(s) 1126 (e.g., one or more wireless antennas for differentcommunication protocols, such as a cellular antenna, a Bluetoothantenna, etc.). In at least one embodiment, network interface 1124 maybe used to enable wireless connectivity to Internet cloud services(e.g., with server(s) and/or other network devices), with othervehicles, and/or with computing devices (e.g., client devices ofpassengers). In at least one embodiment, to communicate with othervehicles, a direct link may be established between vehicle 110 andanother vehicle and/or an indirect link may be established (e.g., acrossnetworks and over the Internet). In at least one embodiment, directlinks may be provided using a vehicle-to-vehicle communication link. Inat least one embodiment, a vehicle-to-vehicle communication link mayprovide vehicle 1100 information about vehicles in proximity to vehicle1100 (e.g., vehicles in front of, on a side of, and/or behind vehicle1100). In at least one embodiment, such aforementioned functionality maybe part of a cooperative adaptive cruise control functionality ofvehicle 1100.

In at least one embodiment, network interface 1124 may include an SoCthat provides modulation and demodulation functionality and enablescontroller(s) 1136 to communicate over wireless networks. In at leastone embodiment, network interface 1124 may include a radio frequencyfront-end for up-conversion from baseband to radio frequency, and downconversion from radio frequency to baseband. In at least one embodiment,frequency conversions may be performed in any technically feasiblefashion. For example, frequency conversions could be performed throughwell-known processes, and/or using super-heterodyne processes. In atleast one embodiment, radio frequency front end functionality may beprovided by a separate chip. In at least one embodiment, networkinterfaces may include wireless functionality for communicating overLTE, WCDMA, UMTS, GSM, CDMA2000, Bluetooth, Bluetooth LE, Wi-Fi, Z-Wave,ZigBee, LoRaWAN, and/or other wireless protocols.

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may further include datastore(s) 1128 which may include, without limitation, off-chip (e.g., offSoC(s) 1104) storage. In at least one embodiment, data store(s) 1128 mayinclude, without limitation, one or more storage elements including RAM,SRAM, dynamic random-access memory (“DRAM”), video random-access memory(“VRAM”), flash memory, hard disks, and/or other components and/ordevices that may store at least one bit of data.

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may further include GNSSsensor(s) 1158 (e.g., GPS and/or assisted GPS sensors), to assist inmapping, perception, occupancy grid generation, and/or path planningfunctions. In at least one embodiment, any number of GNSS sensor(s) 1158may be used, including, for example and without limitation, a GPS usinga USB connector with an Ethernet-to-Serial (e.g., RS-232) bridge.

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may further include RADARsensor(s) 1160. In at least one embodiment, RADAR sensor(s) 1160 may beused by vehicle 1100 for long-range vehicle detection, even in darknessand/or severe weather conditions. In at least one embodiment, RADARfunctional safety levels may be ASIL B. In at least one embodiment,RADAR sensor(s) 1160 may use a CAN bus and/or bus 1102 (e.g., totransmit data generated by RADAR sensor(s) 1160) for control and toaccess object tracking data, with access to Ethernet channels to accessraw data in some examples. In at least one embodiment, a wide variety ofRADAR sensor types may be used. For example, and without limitation,RADAR sensor(s) 1160 may be suitable for front, rear, and side RADARuse. In at least one embodiment, one or more sensor of RADAR sensors(s)1160 is a Pulse Doppler RADAR sensor.

In at least one embodiment, RADAR sensor(s) 1160 may include differentconfigurations, such as long-range with narrow field of view,short-range with wide field of view, short-range side coverage, etc. Inat least one embodiment, long-range RADAR may be used for adaptivecruise control functionality. In at least one embodiment, long-rangeRADAR systems may provide a broad field of view realized by two or moreindependent scans, such as within a 250 m (meter) range. In at least oneembodiment, RADAR sensor(s) 1160 may help in distinguishing betweenstatic and moving objects, and may be used by ADAS system 1138 foremergency brake assist and forward collision warning. In at least oneembodiment, sensors 1160(s) included in a long-range RADAR system mayinclude, without limitation, monostatic multimodal RADAR with multiple(e.g., six or more) fixed RADAR antennae and a high-speed CAN andFlexRay interface. In at least one embodiment, with six antennae, acentral four antennae may create a focused beam pattern, designed torecord vehicle's 1100 surroundings at higher speeds with minimalinterference from traffic in adjacent lanes. In at least one embodiment,another two antennae may expand field of view, making it possible toquickly detect vehicles entering or leaving a lane of vehicle 1100.

In at least one embodiment, mid-range RADAR systems may include, as anexample, a range of up to 160 m (front) or 80 m (rear), and a field ofview of up to 42 degrees (front) or 150 degrees (rear). In at least oneembodiment, short-range RADAR systems may include, without limitation,any number of RADAR sensor(s) 1160 designed to be installed at both endsof a rear bumper. When installed at both ends of a rear bumper, in atleast one embodiment, a RADAR sensor system may create two beams thatconstantly monitor blind spots in a rear direction and next to avehicle. In at least one embodiment, short-range RADAR systems may beused in ADAS system 1138 for blind spot detection and/or lane changeassist.

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may further include ultrasonicsensor(s) 1162. In at least one embodiment, ultrasonic sensor(s) 1162,which may be positioned at a front, a back, and/or side location ofvehicle 1100, may be used for parking assist and/or to create and updatean occupancy grid. In at least one embodiment, a wide variety ofultrasonic sensor(s) 1162 may be used, and different ultrasonicsensor(s) 1162 may be used for different ranges of detection (e.g., 2.5m, 4 m). In at least one embodiment, ultrasonic sensor(s) 1162 mayoperate at functional safety levels of ASIL B.

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may include LIDAR sensor(s)1164. In at least one embodiment, LIDAR sensor(s) 1164 may be used forobject and pedestrian detection, emergency braking, collision avoidance,and/or other functions. In at least one embodiment, LIDAR sensor(s) 1164may operate at functional safety level ASIL B. In at least oneembodiment, vehicle 1100 may include multiple LIDAR sensors 1164 (e.g.,two, four, six, etc.) that may use a Ethernet channel (e.g., to providedata to a Gigabit Ethernet switch).

In at least one embodiment, LIDAR sensor(s) 1164 may be capable ofproviding a list of objects and their distances for a 360-degree fieldof view. In at least one embodiment, commercially available LIDARsensor(s) 1164 may have an advertised range of approximately 100 m, withan accuracy of 2 cm to 3 cm, and with support for a 100 Mbps Ethernetconnection, for example. In at least one embodiment, one or morenon-protruding LIDAR sensors may be used. In such an embodiment, LIDARsensor(s) 1164 may include a small device that may be embedded into afront, a rear, a side, and/or a corner location of vehicle 1100. In atleast one embodiment, LIDAR sensor(s) 1164, in such an embodiment, mayprovide up to a 120-degree horizontal and 35-degree verticalfield-of-view, with a 200 m range even for low-reflectivity objects. Inat least one embodiment, front-mounted LIDAR sensor(s) 1164 may beconfigured for a horizontal field of view between 45 degrees and 135degrees.

In at least one embodiment, LIDAR technologies, such as 3D flash LIDAR,may also be used. In at least one embodiment, 3D flash LIDAR uses aflash of a laser as a transmission source, to illuminate surroundings ofvehicle 1100 up to approximately 200 m. In at least one embodiment, aflash LIDAR unit includes, without limitation, a receptor, which recordslaser pulse transit time and reflected light on each pixel, which inturn corresponds to a range from vehicle 1100 to objects. In at leastone embodiment, flash LIDAR may allow for highly accurate anddistortion-free images of surroundings to be generated with every laserflash. In at least one embodiment, four flash LIDAR sensors may bedeployed, one at each side of vehicle 1100. In at least one embodiment,3D flash LIDAR systems include, without limitation, a solid-state 3Dstaring array LIDAR camera with no moving parts other than a fan (e.g.,a non-scanning LIDAR device). In at least one embodiment, flash LIDARdevice may use a 5 nanosecond class I (eye-safe) laser pulse per frameand may capture reflected laser light as a 3D range point cloud andco-registered intensity data.

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may further include IMUsensor(s) 1166. In at least one embodiment, IMU sensor(s) 1166 may belocated at a center of a rear axle of vehicle 1100. In at least oneembodiment, IMU sensor(s) 1166 may include, for example and withoutlimitation, accelerometer(s), magnetometer(s), gyroscope(s), a magneticcompass, magnetic compasses, and/or other sensor types. In at least oneembodiment, such as in six-axis applications, IMU sensor(s) 1166 mayinclude, without limitation, accelerometers and gyroscopes. In at leastone embodiment, such as in nine-axis applications, IMU sensor(s) 1166may include, without limitation, accelerometers, gyroscopes, andmagnetometers.

In at least one embodiment, IMU sensor(s) 1166 may be implemented as aminiature, high performance GPS-Aided Inertial Navigation System(“GPS/INS”) that combines micro-electro-mechanical systems (“MEMS”)inertial sensors, a high-sensitivity GPS receiver, and advanced Kalmanfiltering algorithms to provide estimates of position, velocity, andattitude. In at least one embodiment, IMU sensor(s) 1166 may enablevehicle 1100 to estimate its heading without requiring input from amagnetic sensor by directly observing and correlating changes invelocity from a GPS to IMU sensor(s) 1166. In at least one embodiment,IMU sensor(s) 1166 and GNSS sensor(s) 1158 may be combined in a singleintegrated unit.

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may include microphone(s) 1196placed in and/or around vehicle 1100. In at least one embodiment,microphone(s) 1196 may be used for emergency vehicle detection andidentification, among other things.

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may further include any numberof camera types, including stereo camera(s) 1168, wide-view camera(s)1170, infrared camera(s) 1172, surround camera(s) 1174, long-rangecamera(s) 1198, mid-range camera(s) 1176, and/or other camera types. Inat least one embodiment, cameras may be used to capture image dataaround an entire periphery of vehicle 1100. In at least one embodiment,which types of cameras used depends on vehicle 1100. In at least oneembodiment, any combination of camera types may be used to providenecessary coverage around vehicle 1100. In at least one embodiment, anumber of cameras deployed may differ depending on embodiment. Forexample, in at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 could include sixcameras, seven cameras, ten cameras, twelve cameras, or another numberof cameras. In at least one embodiment, cameras may support, as anexample and without limitation, Gigabit Multimedia Serial Link (“GMSL”)and/or Gigabit Ethernet communications. In at least one embodiment, eachcamera might be as described with more detail previously herein withrespect to FIG. 11A and FIG. 11B.

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may further include vibrationsensor(s) 1142. In at least one embodiment, vibration sensor(s) 1142 maymeasure vibrations of components of vehicle 1100, such as axle(s). Forexample, in at least one embodiment, changes in vibrations may indicatea change in road surfaces. In at least one embodiment, when two or morevibration sensors 1142 are used, differences between vibrations may beused to determine friction or slippage of road surface (e.g., when adifference in vibration is between a power-driven axle and a freelyrotating axle).

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may include ADAS system 1138.In at least one embodiment, ADAS system 1138 may include, withoutlimitation, an SoC, in some examples. In at least one embodiment, ADASsystem 1138 may include, without limitation, any number and combinationof an autonomous/adaptive/automatic cruise control (“ACC”) system, acooperative adaptive cruise control (“CACC”) system, a forward crashwarning (“FCW”) system, an automatic emergency braking (“AEB”) system, alane departure warning (“LDW)” system, a lane keep assist (“LKA”)system, a blind spot warning (“BSW”) system, a rear cross-trafficwarning (“RCTW”) system, a collision warning (“CW”) system, a lanecentering (“LC”) system, and/or other systems, features, and/orfunctionality.

In at least one embodiment, ACC system may use RADAR sensor(s) 1160,LIDAR sensor(s) 1164, and/or any number of camera(s). In at least oneembodiment, ACC system may include a longitudinal ACC system and/or alateral ACC system. In at least one embodiment, a longitudinal ACCsystem monitors and controls distance to another vehicle immediatelyahead of vehicle 1100 and automatically adjusts speed of vehicle 1100 tomaintain a safe distance from vehicles ahead. In at least oneembodiment, a lateral ACC system performs distance keeping, and advisesvehicle 1100 to change lanes when necessary. In at least one embodiment,a lateral ACC is related to other ADAS applications, such as LC and CW.

In at least one embodiment, a CACC system uses information from othervehicles that may be received via network interface 1124 and/or wirelessantenna(s) 1126 from other vehicles via a wireless link, or indirectly,over a network connection (e.g., over the Internet). In at least oneembodiment, direct links may be provided by a vehicle-to-vehicle (“V2V”)communication link, while indirect links may be provided by aninfrastructure-to-vehicle (“I2V”) communication link. In general, V2Vcommunication provides information about immediately preceding vehicles(e.g., vehicles immediately ahead of and in same lane as vehicle 1100),while I2V communication provides information about traffic furtherahead. In at least one embodiment, a CACC system may include either orboth I2V and V2V information sources. In at least one embodiment, giveninformation of vehicles ahead of vehicle 1100, a CACC system may be morereliable and it has potential to improve traffic flow smoothness andreduce congestion on road.

In at least one embodiment, an FCW system is designed to alert a driverto a hazard, so that such driver may take corrective action. In at leastone embodiment, an FCW system uses a front-facing camera and/or RADARsensor(s) 1160, coupled to a dedicated processor, DSP, FPGA, and/orASIC, that is electrically coupled to provide driver feedback, such as adisplay, speaker, and/or vibrating component. In at least oneembodiment, an FCW system may provide a warning, such as in form of asound, visual warning, vibration and/or a quick brake pulse.

In at least one embodiment, an AEB system detects an impending forwardcollision with another vehicle or other object, and may automaticallyapply brakes if a driver does not take corrective action within aspecified time or distance parameter. In at least one embodiment, AEBsystem may use front-facing camera(s) and/or RADAR sensor(s) 1160,coupled to a dedicated processor, DSP, FPGA, and/or ASIC. In at leastone embodiment, when an AEB system detects a hazard, it will typicallyfirst alert a driver to take corrective action to avoid collision and,if that driver does not take corrective action, that AEB system mayautomatically apply brakes in an effort to prevent, or at leastmitigate, an impact of a predicted collision. In at least oneembodiment, a AEB system may include techniques such as dynamic brakesupport and/or crash imminent braking.

In at least one embodiment, an LDW system provides visual, audible,and/or tactile warnings, such as steering wheel or seat vibrations, toalert driver when vehicle 1100 crosses lane markings. In at least oneembodiment, an LDW system does not activate when a driver indicates anintentional lane departure, such as by activating a turn signal. In atleast one embodiment, an LDW system may use front-side facing cameras,coupled to a dedicated processor, DSP, FPGA, and/or ASIC, that iselectrically coupled to provide driver feedback, such as a display,speaker, and/or vibrating component. In at least one embodiment, an LKAsystem is a variation of an LDW system. In at least one embodiment, anLKA system provides steering input or braking to correct vehicle 1100 ifvehicle 1100 starts to exit its lane.

In at least one embodiment, a BSW system detects and warns a driver ofvehicles in an automobile's blind spot. In at least one embodiment, aBSW system may provide a visual, audible, and/or tactile alert toindicate that merging or changing lanes is unsafe. In at least oneembodiment, a BSW system may provide an additional warning when a driveruses a turn signal. In at least one embodiment, a BSW system may userear-side facing camera(s) and/or RADAR sensor(s) 1160, coupled to adedicated processor, DSP, FPGA, and/or ASIC, that is electricallycoupled to driver feedback, such as a display, speaker, and/or vibratingcomponent.

In at least one embodiment, an RCTW system may provide visual, audible,and/or tactile notification when an object is detected outside arear-camera range when vehicle 1100 is backing up. In at least oneembodiment, an RCTW system includes an AEB system to ensure that vehiclebrakes are applied to avoid a crash. In at least one embodiment, an RCTWsystem may use one or more rear-facing RADAR sensor(s) 1160, coupled toa dedicated processor, DSP, FPGA, and/or ASIC, that is electricallycoupled to provide driver feedback, such as a display, speaker, and/orvibrating component.

In at least one embodiment, conventional ADAS systems may be prone tofalse positive results which may be annoying and distracting to adriver, but typically are not catastrophic, because conventional ADASsystems alert a driver and allow that driver to decide whether a safetycondition truly exists and act accordingly. In at least one embodiment,vehicle 1100 itself decides, in case of conflicting results, whether toheed result from a primary computer or a secondary computer (e.g., afirst controller or a second controller of controllers 1136). Forexample, in at least one embodiment, ADAS system 1138 may be a backupand/or secondary computer for providing perception information to abackup computer rationality module. In at least one embodiment, a backupcomputer rationality monitor may run redundant diverse software onhardware components to detect faults in perception and dynamic drivingtasks. In at least one embodiment, outputs from ADAS system 1138 may beprovided to a supervisory MCU. In at least one embodiment, if outputsfrom a primary computer and outputs from a secondary computer conflict,a supervisory MCU determines how to reconcile conflict to ensure safeoperation.

In at least one embodiment, a primary computer may be configured toprovide a supervisory MCU with a confidence score, indicating thatprimary computer's confidence in a chosen result. In at least oneembodiment, if that confidence score exceeds a threshold, thatsupervisory MCU may follow that primary computer's direction, regardlessof whether that secondary computer provides a conflicting orinconsistent result. In at least one embodiment, where a confidencescore does not meet a threshold, and where primary and secondarycomputers indicate different results (e.g., a conflict), a supervisoryMCU may arbitrate between computers to determine an appropriate outcome.

In at least one embodiment, a supervisory MCU may be configured to run aneural network(s) that is trained and configured to determine, based atleast in part on outputs from a primary computer and outputs from asecondary computer, conditions under which that secondary computerprovides false alarms. In at least one embodiment, neural network(s) ina supervisory MCU may learn when a secondary computer's output may betrusted, and when it cannot. For example, in at least one embodiment,when that secondary computer is a RADAR-based FCW system, a neuralnetwork(s) in that supervisory MCU may learn when an FCW system isidentifying metallic objects that are not, in fact, hazards, such as adrainage grate or manhole cover that triggers an alarm. In at least oneembodiment, when a secondary computer is a camera-based LDW system, aneural network in a supervisory MCU may learn to override LDW whenbicyclists or pedestrians are present and a lane departure is, in fact,a safest maneuver. In at least one embodiment, a supervisory MCU mayinclude at least one of a DLA or a GPU suitable for running neuralnetwork(s) with associated memory. In at least one embodiment, asupervisory MCU may comprise and/or be included as a component of SoC(s)1104.

In at least one embodiment, ADAS system 1138 may include a secondarycomputer that performs ADAS functionality using traditional rules ofcomputer vision. In at least one embodiment, that secondary computer mayuse classic computer vision rules (if-then), and presence of a neuralnetwork(s) in a supervisory MCU may improve reliability, safety andperformance. For example, in at least one embodiment, diverseimplementation and intentional non-identity makes an overall system morefault-tolerant, especially to faults caused by software (orsoftware-hardware interface) functionality. For example, in at least oneembodiment, if there is a software bug or error in software running on aprimary computer, and non-identical software code running on a secondarycomputer provides a consistent overall result, then a supervisory MCUmay have greater confidence that an overall result is correct, and a bugin software or hardware on that primary computer is not causing amaterial error.

In at least one embodiment, an output of ADAS system 1138 may be fedinto a primary computer's perception block and/or a primary computer'sdynamic driving task block. For example, in at least one embodiment, ifADAS system 1138 indicates a forward crash warning due to an objectimmediately ahead, a perception block may use this information whenidentifying objects. In at least one embodiment, a secondary computermay have its own neural network that is trained and thus reduces a riskof false positives, as described herein.

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may further includeinfotainment SoC 1130 (e.g., an in-vehicle infotainment system (IVI)).Although illustrated and described as an SoC, infotainment system SoC1130, in at least one embodiment, may not be an SoC, and may include,without limitation, two or more discrete components. In at least oneembodiment, infotainment SoC 1130 may include, without limitation, acombination of hardware and software that may be used to provide audio(e.g., music, a personal digital assistant, navigational instructions,news, radio, etc.), video (e.g., TV, movies, streaming, etc.), phone(e.g., hands-free calling), network connectivity (e.g., LTE, WiFi,etc.), and/or information services (e.g., navigation systems,rear-parking assistance, a radio data system, vehicle relatedinformation such as fuel level, total distance covered, brake fuellevel, oil level, door open/close, air filter information, etc.) tovehicle 1100. For example, infotainment SoC 1130 could include radios,disk players, navigation systems, video players, USB and Bluetoothconnectivity, carputers, in-car entertainment, WiFi, steering wheelaudio controls, hands free voice control, a heads-up display (“HUD”),HMI display 1134, a telematics device, a control panel (e.g., forcontrolling and/or interacting with various components, features, and/orsystems), and/or other components. In at least one embodiment,infotainment SoC 1130 may further be used to provide information (e.g.,visual and/or audible) to user(s) of vehicle 1100, such as informationfrom ADAS system 1138, autonomous driving information such as plannedvehicle maneuvers, trajectories, surrounding environment information(e.g., intersection information, vehicle information, road information,etc.), and/or other information.

In at least one embodiment, infotainment SoC 1130 may include any amountand type of GPU functionality. In at least one embodiment, infotainmentSoC 1130 may communicate over bus 1102 with other devices, systems,and/or components of vehicle 1100. In at least one embodiment,infotainment SoC 1130 may be coupled to a supervisory MCU such that aGPU of an infotainment system may perform some self-driving functions inevent that primary controller(s) 1136 (e.g., primary and/or backupcomputers of vehicle 1100) fail. In at least one embodiment,infotainment SoC 1130 may put vehicle 1100 into a chauffeur to safe stopmode, as described herein.

In at least one embodiment, vehicle 1100 may further include instrumentcluster 1132 (e.g., a digital dash, an electronic instrument cluster, adigital instrument panel, etc.). In at least one embodiment, instrumentcluster 1132 may include, without limitation, a controller and/orsupercomputer (e.g., a discrete controller or supercomputer). In atleast one embodiment, instrument cluster 1132 may include, withoutlimitation, any number and combination of a set of instrumentation suchas a speedometer, fuel level, oil pressure, tachometer, odometer, turnindicators, gearshift position indicator, seat belt warning light(s),parking-brake warning light(s), engine-malfunction light(s),supplemental restraint system (e.g., airbag) information, lightingcontrols, safety system controls, navigation information, etc. In someexamples, information may be displayed and/or shared among infotainmentSoC 1130 and instrument cluster 1132. In at least one embodiment,instrument cluster 1132 may be included as part of infotainment SoC1130, or vice versa.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 may be used in systemFIG. 11C for inferencing or predicting operations based, at least inpart, on weight parameters calculated using neural network trainingoperations, neural network functions and/or architectures, or neuralnetwork use cases described herein.

FIG. 11D is a diagram of a system 1176 for communication betweencloud-based server(s) and autonomous vehicle 1100 of FIG. 11A, accordingto at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, system 1176 mayinclude, without limitation, server(s) 1178, network(s) 1190, and anynumber and type of vehicles, including vehicle 1100. In at least oneembodiment, server(s) 1178 may include, without limitation, a pluralityof GPUs 1184(A)-1184(H) (collectively referred to herein as GPUs 1184),PCIe switches 1182(A)-1182(D) (collectively referred to herein as PCIeswitches 1182), and/or CPUs 1180(A)-1180(B) (collectively referred toherein as CPUs 1180). In at least one embodiment, GPUs 1184, CPUs 1180,and PCIe switches 1182 may be interconnected with high-speedinterconnects such as, for example and without limitation, NVLinkinterfaces 1188 developed by NVIDIA and/or PCIe connections 1186. In atleast one embodiment, GPUs 1184 are connected via an NVLink and/orNVSwitch SoC and GPUs 1184 and PCIe switches 1182 are connected via PCIeinterconnects. Although eight GPUs 1184, two CPUs 1180, and four PCIeswitches 1182 are illustrated, this is not intended to be limiting. Inat least one embodiment, each of server(s) 1178 may include, withoutlimitation, any number of GPUs 1184, CPUs 1180, and/or PCIe switches1182, in any combination. For example, in at least one embodiment,server(s) 1178 could each include eight, sixteen, thirty-two, and/ormore GPUs 1184.

In at least one embodiment, server(s) 1178 may receive, over network(s)1190 and from vehicles, image data representative of images showingunexpected or changed road conditions, such as recently commencedroad-work. In at least one embodiment, server(s) 1178 may transmit, overnetwork(s) 1190 and to vehicles, neural networks 1192, updated orotherwise, and/or map information 1194, including, without limitation,information regarding traffic and road conditions. In at least oneembodiment, updates to map information 1194 may include, withoutlimitation, updates for HD map 1122, such as information regardingconstruction sites, potholes, detours, flooding, and/or otherobstructions. In at least one embodiment, neural networks 1192, and/ormap information 1194 may have resulted from new training and/orexperiences represented in data received from any number of vehicles inan environment, and/or based at least in part on training performed at adata center (e.g., using server(s) 1178 and/or other servers).

In at least one embodiment, server(s) 1178 may be used to train machinelearning models (e.g., neural networks) based at least in part ontraining data. In at least one embodiment, training data may begenerated by vehicles, and/or may be generated in a simulation (e.g.,using a game engine). In at least one embodiment, any amount of trainingdata is tagged (e.g., where associated neural network benefits fromsupervised learning) and/or undergoes other pre-processing. In at leastone embodiment, any amount of training data is not tagged and/orpre-processed (e.g., where associated neural network does not requiresupervised learning). In at least one embodiment, once machine learningmodels are trained, machine learning models may be used by vehicles(e.g., transmitted to vehicles over network(s) 1190), and/or machinelearning models may be used by server(s) 1178 to remotely monitorvehicles.

In at least one embodiment, server(s) 1178 may receive data fromvehicles and apply data to up-to-date real-time neural networks forreal-time intelligent inferencing. In at least one embodiment, server(s)1178 may include deep-learning supercomputers and/or dedicated AIcomputers powered by GPU(s) 1184, such as a DGX and DGX Station machinesdeveloped by NVIDIA. However, in at least one embodiment, server(s) 1178may include deep learning infrastructure that uses CPU-powered datacenters.

In at least one embodiment, deep-learning infrastructure of server(s)1178 may be capable of fast, real-time inferencing, and may use thatcapability to evaluate and verify health of processors, software, and/orassociated hardware in vehicle 1100. For example, in at least oneembodiment, deep-learning infrastructure may receive periodic updatesfrom vehicle 1100, such as a sequence of images and/or objects thatvehicle 1100 has located in that sequence of images (e.g., via computervision and/or other machine learning object classification techniques).In at least one embodiment, deep-learning infrastructure may run its ownneural network to identify objects and compare them with objectsidentified by vehicle 1100 and, if results do not match anddeep-learning infrastructure concludes that AI in vehicle 1100 ismalfunctioning, then server(s) 1178 may transmit a signal to vehicle1100 instructing a fail-safe computer of vehicle 1100 to assume control,notify passengers, and complete a safe parking maneuver.

In at least one embodiment, server(s) 1178 may include GPU(s) 1184 andone or more programmable inference accelerators (e.g., NVIDIA's TensorRT3 devices). In at least one embodiment, a combination of GPU-poweredservers and inference acceleration may make real-time responsivenesspossible. In at least one embodiment, such as where performance is lesscritical, servers powered by CPUs, FPGAs, and other processors may beused for inferencing. In at least one embodiment, hardware structure(s)815 are used to perform one or more embodiments. Details regardinghardware structure(x) 815 are provided herein in conjunction with FIGS.8A and/or 8B.

Computer Systems

FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary computer system,which may be a system with interconnected devices and components, asystem-on-a-chip (SOC) or some combination thereof formed with aprocessor that may include execution units to execute an instruction,according to at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, acomputer system 1200 may include, without limitation, a component, suchas a processor 1202 to employ execution units including logic to performalgorithms for process data, in accordance with present disclosure, suchas in embodiment described herein. In at least one embodiment, computersystem 1200 may include processors, such as PENTIUM® Processor family,Xeon™ Itanium®, XScale™ and/or StrongARM™, Intel® Core™, or Intel®Nervana™ microprocessors available from Intel Corporation of SantaClara, Calif., although other systems (including PCs having othermicroprocessors, engineering workstations, set-top boxes and like) mayalso be used. In at least one embodiment, computer system 1200 mayexecute a version of WINDOWS operating system available from MicrosoftCorporation of Redmond, Wash., although other operating systems (UNIXand Linux, for example), embedded software, and/or graphical userinterfaces, may also be used.

Embodiments may be used in other devices such as handheld devices andembedded applications. Some examples of handheld devices includecellular phones, Internet Protocol devices, digital cameras, personaldigital assistants (“PDAs”), and handheld PCs. In at least oneembodiment, embedded applications may include a microcontroller, adigital signal processor (“DSP”), system on a chip, network computers(“NetPCs”), set-top boxes, network hubs, wide area network (“WAN”)switches, or any other system that may perform one or more instructionsin accordance with at least one embodiment.

In at least one embodiment, computer system 1200 may include, withoutlimitation, processor 1202 that may include, without limitation, one ormore execution units 1208 to perform machine learning model trainingand/or inferencing according to techniques described herein. In at leastone embodiment, computer system 1200 is a single processor desktop orserver system, but in another embodiment, computer system 1200 may be amultiprocessor system. In at least one embodiment, processor 1202 mayinclude, without limitation, a complex instruction set computer (“CISC”)microprocessor, a reduced instruction set computing (“RISC”)microprocessor, a very long instruction word (“VLIW”) microprocessor, aprocessor implementing a combination of instruction sets, or any otherprocessor device, such as a digital signal processor, for example. In atleast one embodiment, processor 1202 may be coupled to a processor bus1210 that may transmit data signals between processor 1202 and othercomponents in computer system 1200.

In at least one embodiment, processor 1202 may include, withoutlimitation, a Level 1 (“L1”) internal cache memory (“cache”) 1204. In atleast one embodiment, processor 1202 may have a single internal cache ormultiple levels of internal cache. In at least one embodiment, cachememory may reside external to processor 1202. Other embodiments may alsoinclude a combination of both internal and external caches depending onparticular implementation and needs. In at least one embodiment, aregister file 1206 may store different types of data in variousregisters including, without limitation, integer registers, floatingpoint registers, status registers, and an instruction pointer register.

In at least one embodiment, execution unit 1208, including, withoutlimitation, logic to perform integer and floating point operations, alsoresides in processor 1202. In at least one embodiment, processor 1202may also include a microcode (“ucode”) read only memory (“ROM”) thatstores microcode for certain macro instructions. In at least oneembodiment, execution unit 1208 may include logic to handle a packedinstruction set 1209. In at least one embodiment, by including packedinstruction set 1209 in an instruction set of a general-purposeprocessor, along with associated circuitry to execute instructions,operations used by many multimedia applications may be performed usingpacked data in processor 1202. In one or more embodiments, manymultimedia applications may be accelerated and executed more efficientlyby using a full width of a processor's data bus for performingoperations on packed data, which may eliminate a need to transfersmaller units of data across that processor's data bus to perform one ormore operations one data element at a time.

In at least one embodiment, execution unit 1208 may also be used inmicrocontrollers, embedded processors, graphics devices, DSPs, and othertypes of logic circuits. In at least one embodiment, computer system1200 may include, without limitation, a memory 1220. In at least oneembodiment, memory 1220 may be a Dynamic Random Access Memory (“DRAM”)device, a Static Random Access Memory (“SRAM”) device, a flash memorydevice, or another memory device. In at least one embodiment, memory1220 may store instruction(s) 1219 and/or data 1221 represented by datasignals that may be executed by processor 1202.

In at least one embodiment, a system logic chip may be coupled toprocessor bus 1210 and memory 1220. In at least one embodiment, a systemlogic chip may include, without limitation, a memory controller hub(“MCH”) 1216, and processor 1202 may communicate with MCH 1216 viaprocessor bus 1210. In at least one embodiment, MCH 1216 may provide ahigh bandwidth memory path 1218 to memory 1220 for instruction and datastorage and for storage of graphics commands, data and textures. In atleast one embodiment, MCH 1216 may direct data signals between processor1202, memory 1220, and other components in computer system 1200 and tobridge data signals between processor bus 1210, memory 1220, and asystem I/O interface 1222. In at least one embodiment, a system logicchip may provide a graphics port for coupling to a graphics controller.In at least one embodiment, MCH 1216 may be coupled to memory 1220through high bandwidth memory path 1218 and a graphics/video card 1212may be coupled to MCH 1216 through an Accelerated Graphics Port (“AGP”)interconnect 1214.

In at least one embodiment, computer system 1200 may use system I/Ointerface 1222 as a proprietary hub interface bus to couple MCH 1216 toan I/O controller hub (“ICH”) 1230. In at least one embodiment, ICH 1230may provide direct connections to some I/O devices via a local I/O bus.In at least one embodiment, a local I/O bus may include, withoutlimitation, a high-speed I/O bus for connecting peripherals to memory1220, a chipset, and processor 1202. Examples may include, withoutlimitation, an audio controller 1229, a firmware hub (“flash BIOS”)1228, a wireless transceiver 1226, a data storage 1224, a legacy I/Ocontroller 1223 containing user input and keyboard interfaces, a serialexpansion port 1227, such as a Universal Serial Bus (“USB”) port, and anetwork controller 1234. In at least one embodiment, data storage 1224may comprise a hard disk drive, a floppy disk drive, a CD-ROM device, aflash memory device, or other mass storage device.

In at least one embodiment, FIG. 12 illustrates a system, which includesinterconnected hardware devices or “chips”, whereas in otherembodiments, FIG. 12 may illustrate an exemplary SoC. In at least oneembodiment, devices illustrated in FIG. 12 may be interconnected withproprietary interconnects, standardized interconnects (e.g., PCIe) orsome combination thereof. In at least one embodiment, one or morecomponents of computer system 1200 are interconnected using computeexpress link (CXL) interconnects.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 may be used in systemFIG. 12 for inferencing or predicting operations based, at least inpart, on weight parameters calculated using neural network trainingoperations, neural network functions and/or architectures, or neuralnetwork use cases described herein.

FIG. 13 is a block diagram illustrating an electronic device 1300 forutilizing a processor 1310, according to at least one embodiment. In atleast one embodiment, electronic device 1300 may be, for example andwithout limitation, a notebook, a tower server, a rack server, a bladeserver, a laptop, a desktop, a tablet, a mobile device, a phone, anembedded computer, or any other suitable electronic device.

In at least one embodiment, electronic device 1300 may include, withoutlimitation, processor 1310 communicatively coupled to any suitablenumber or kind of components, peripherals, modules, or devices. In atleast one embodiment, processor 1310 is coupled using a bus orinterface, such as a I²C bus, a System Management Bus (“SMBus”), a LowPin Count (LPC) bus, a Serial Peripheral Interface (“SPI”), a HighDefinition Audio (“HDA”) bus, a Serial Advance Technology Attachment(“SATA”) bus, a Universal Serial Bus (“USB”) (versions 1, 2, 3, etc.),or a Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (“UART”) bus. In atleast one embodiment, FIG. 13 illustrates a system, which includesinterconnected hardware devices or “chips”, whereas in otherembodiments, FIG. 13 may illustrate an exemplary SoC. In at least oneembodiment, devices illustrated in FIG. 13 may be interconnected withproprietary interconnects, standardized interconnects (e.g., PCIe) orsome combination thereof. In at least one embodiment, one or morecomponents of FIG. 13 are interconnected using compute express link(CXL) interconnects.

In at least one embodiment, FIG. 13 may include a display 1324, a touchscreen 1325, a touch pad 1330, a Near Field Communications unit (“NFC”)1345, a sensor hub 1340, a thermal sensor 1346, an Express Chipset(“EC”) 1335, a Trusted Platform Module (“TPM”) 1338, BIOS/firmware/flashmemory (“BIOS, FW Flash”) 1322, a DSP 1360, a drive 1320 such as a SolidState Disk (“SSD”) or a Hard Disk Drive (“HDD”), a wireless local areanetwork unit (“WLAN”) 1350, a Bluetooth unit 1352, a Wireless Wide AreaNetwork unit (“WWAN”) 1356, a Global Positioning System (GPS) unit 1355,a camera (“USB 3.0 camera”) 1354 such as a USB 3.0 camera, and/or a LowPower Double Data Rate (“LPDDR”) memory unit (“LPDDR3”) 1315 implementedin, for example, an LPDDR3 standard. These components may each beimplemented in any suitable manner.

In at least one embodiment, other components may be communicativelycoupled to processor 1310 through components described herein. In atleast one embodiment, an accelerometer 1341, an ambient light sensor(“ALS”) 1342, a compass 1343, and a gyroscope 1344 may becommunicatively coupled to sensor hub 1340. In at least one embodiment,a thermal sensor 1339, a fan 1337, a keyboard 1336, and touch pad 1330may be communicatively coupled to EC 1335. In at least one embodiment,speakers 1363, headphones 1364, and a microphone (“mic”) 1365 may becommunicatively coupled to an audio unit (“audio codec and class D amp”)1362, which may in turn be communicatively coupled to DSP 1360. In atleast one embodiment, audio unit 1362 may include, for example andwithout limitation, an audio coder/decoder (“codec”) and a class Damplifier. In at least one embodiment, a SIM card (“SIM”) 1357 may becommunicatively coupled to WWAN unit 1356. In at least one embodiment,components such as WLAN unit 1350 and Bluetooth unit 1352, as well asWWAN unit 1356 may be implemented in a Next Generation Form Factor(“NGFF”).

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 may be used in systemFIG. 13 for inferencing or predicting operations based, at least inpart, on weight parameters calculated using neural network trainingoperations, neural network functions and/or architectures, or neuralnetwork use cases described herein.

FIG. 14 illustrates a computer system 1400, according to at least oneembodiment. In at least one embodiment, computer system 1400 isconfigured to implement various processes and methods describedthroughout this disclosure.

In at least one embodiment, computer system 1400 comprises, withoutlimitation, at least one central processing unit (“CPU”) 1402 that isconnected to a communication bus 1410 implemented using any suitableprotocol, such as PCI (“Peripheral Component Interconnect”), peripheralcomponent interconnect express (“PCI-Express”), AGP (“AcceleratedGraphics Port”), HyperTransport, or any other bus or point-to-pointcommunication protocol(s). In at least one embodiment, computer system1400 includes, without limitation, a main memory 1404 and control logic(e.g., implemented as hardware, software, or a combination thereof) anddata are stored in main memory 1404, which may take form of randomaccess memory (“RAM”). In at least one embodiment, a network interfacesubsystem (“network interface”) 1422 provides an interface to othercomputing devices and networks for receiving data from and transmittingdata to other systems with computer system 1400.

In at least one embodiment, computer system 1400, in at least oneembodiment, includes, without limitation, input devices 1408, a parallelprocessing system 1412, and display devices 1406 that can be implementedusing a conventional cathode ray tube (“CRT”), a liquid crystal display(“LCD”), a light emitting diode (“LED”) display, a plasma display, orother suitable display technologies. In at least one embodiment, userinput is received from input devices 1408 such as keyboard, mouse,touchpad, microphone, etc. In at least one embodiment, each moduledescribed herein can be situated on a single semiconductor platform toform a processing system.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 may be used in systemFIG. 14 for inferencing or predicting operations based, at least inpart, on weight parameters calculated using neural network trainingoperations, neural network functions and/or architectures, or neuralnetwork use cases described herein.

FIG. 15 illustrates a computer system 1500, according to at least oneembodiment. In at least one embodiment, computer system 1500 includes,without limitation, a computer 1510 and a USB stick 1520. In at leastone embodiment, computer 1510 may include, without limitation, anynumber and type of processor(s) (not shown) and a memory (not shown). Inat least one embodiment, computer 1510 includes, without limitation, aserver, a cloud instance, a laptop, and a desktop computer.

In at least one embodiment, USB stick 1520 includes, without limitation,a processing unit 1530, a USB interface 1540, and USB interface logic1550. In at least one embodiment, processing unit 1530 may be anyinstruction execution system, apparatus, or device capable of executinginstructions. In at least one embodiment, processing unit 1530 mayinclude, without limitation, any number and type of processing cores(not shown). In at least one embodiment, processing unit 1530 comprisesan application specific integrated circuit (“ASIC”) that is optimized toperform any amount and type of operations associated with machinelearning. For instance, in at least one embodiment, processing unit 1530is a tensor processing unit (“TPC”) that is optimized to perform machinelearning inference operations. In at least one embodiment, processingunit 1530 is a vision processing unit (“VPU”) that is optimized toperform machine vision and machine learning inference operations.

In at least one embodiment, USB interface 1540 may be any type of USBconnector or USB socket. For instance, in at least one embodiment, USBinterface 1540 is a USB 3.0 Type-C socket for data and power. In atleast one embodiment, USB interface 1540 is a USB 3.0 Type-A connector.In at least one embodiment, USB interface logic 1550 may include anyamount and type of logic that enables processing unit 1530 to interfacewith devices (e.g., computer 1510) via USB connector 1540.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 may be used in systemFIG. 15 for inferencing or predicting operations based, at least inpart, on weight parameters calculated using neural network trainingoperations, neural network functions and/or architectures, or neuralnetwork use cases described herein.

FIG. 16A illustrates an exemplary architecture in which a plurality ofGPUs 1610(1)-1610(N) is communicatively coupled to a plurality ofmulti-core processors 1605(1)-1605(M) over high-speed links1640(1)-1640(N) (e.g., buses, point-to-point interconnects, etc.). In atleast one embodiment, high-speed links 1640(1)-1640(N) support acommunication throughput of 4 GB/s, 30 GB/s, 80 GB/s or higher. In atleast one embodiment, various interconnect protocols may be usedincluding, but not limited to, PCIe 4.0 or 5.0 and NVLink 2.0. Invarious figures, “N” and “M” represent positive integers, values ofwhich may be different from figure to figure.

In addition, and in one embodiment, two or more of GPUs 1610 areinterconnected over high-speed links 1629(1)-1629(2), which may beimplemented using similar or different protocols/links than those usedfor high-speed links 1640(1)-1640(N). Similarly, two or more ofmulti-core processors 1605 may be connected over a high-speed link 1628which may be symmetric multi-processor (SMP) buses operating at 20 GB/s,30 GB/s, 120 GB/s or higher. Alternatively, all communication betweenvarious system components shown in FIG. 16A may be accomplished usingsimilar protocols/links (e.g., over a common interconnection fabric).

In one embodiment, each multi-core processor 1605 is communicativelycoupled to a processor memory 1601(1)-1601(M), via memory interconnects1626(1)-1626(M), respectively, and each GPU 1610(1)-1610(N) iscommunicatively coupled to GPU memory 1620(1)-1620(N) over GPU memoryinterconnects 1650(1)-1650(N), respectively. In at least one embodiment,memory interconnects 1626 and 1650 may utilize similar or differentmemory access technologies. By way of example, and not limitation,processor memories 1601(1)-1601(M) and GPU memories 1620 may be volatilememories such as dynamic random access memories (DRAMs) (includingstacked DRAMs), Graphics DDR SDRAM (GDDR) (e.g., GDDR5, GDDR6), or HighBandwidth Memory (HBM) and/or may be non-volatile memories such as 3D)XPoint or Nano-Ram. In at least one embodiment, some portion ofprocessor memories 1601 may be volatile memory and another portion maybe non-volatile memory (e.g., using a two-level memory (2LM) hierarchy).

As described herein, although various multi-core processors 1605 andGPUs 1610 may be physically coupled to a particular memory 1601, 1620,respectively, and/or a unified memory architecture may be implemented inwhich a virtual system address space (also referred to as “effectiveaddress” space) is distributed among various physical memories. Forexample, processor memories 1601(1)-1601(M) may each comprise 64 GB ofsystem memory address space and GPU memories 1620(1)-1620(N) may eachcomprise 32 GB of system memory address space resulting in a total of256 GB addressable memory when M=2 and N=4. Other values for N and M arepossible.

FIG. 16B illustrates additional details for an interconnection between amulti-core processor 1607 and a graphics acceleration module 1646 inaccordance with one exemplary embodiment. In at least one embodiment,graphics acceleration module 1646 may include one or more GPU chipsintegrated on a line card which is coupled to processor 1607 viahigh-speed link 1640 (e.g., a PCIe bus, NVLink, etc.). In at least oneembodiment, graphics acceleration module 1646 may alternatively beintegrated on a package or chip with processor 1607.

In at least one embodiment, processor 1607 includes a plurality of cores1660A-1660D, each with a translation lookaside buffer (“TLB”)1661A-1661D and one or more caches 1662A-1662D. In at least oneembodiment, cores 1660A-1660D may include various other components forexecuting instructions and processing data that are not illustrated. Inat least one embodiment, caches 1662A-1662D may comprise Level 1 (L1)and Level 2 (L2) caches. In addition, one or more shared caches 1656 maybe included in caches 1662A-1662D and shared by sets of cores1660A-1660D. For example, one embodiment of processor 1607 includes 24cores, each with its own L1 cache, twelve shared L2 caches, and twelveshared L3 caches. In this embodiment, one or more L2 and L3 caches areshared by two adjacent cores. In at least one embodiment, processor 1607and graphics acceleration module 1646 connect with system memory 1614,which may include processor memories 1601(1)-1601(M) of FIG. 16A.

In at least one embodiment, coherency is maintained for data andinstructions stored in various caches 1662A-1662D, 1656 and systemmemory 1614 via inter-core communication over a coherence bus 1664. Inat least one embodiment, for example, each cache may have cachecoherency logic/circuitry associated therewith to communicate to overcoherence bus 1664 in response to detected reads or writes to particularcache lines. In at least one embodiment, a cache snooping protocol isimplemented over coherence bus 1664 to snoop cache accesses.

In at least one embodiment, a proxy circuit 1625 communicatively couplesgraphics acceleration module 1646 to coherence bus 1664, allowinggraphics acceleration module 1646 to participate in a cache coherenceprotocol as a peer of cores 1660A-1660D. In particular, in at least oneembodiment, an interface 1635 provides connectivity to proxy circuit1625 over high-speed link 1640 and an interface 1637 connects graphicsacceleration module 1646 to high-speed link 1640.

In at least one embodiment, an accelerator integration circuit 1636provides cache management, memory access, context management, andinterrupt management services on behalf of a plurality of graphicsprocessing engines 1631(1)-1631(N) of graphics acceleration module 1646.In at least one embodiment, graphics processing engines 1631(1)-1631(N)may each comprise a separate graphics processing unit (GPU). In at leastone embodiment, graphics processing engines 1631(1)-1631(N)alternatively may comprise different types of graphics processingengines within a GPU, such as graphics execution units, media processingengines (e.g., video encoders/decoders), samplers, and blit engines. Inat least one embodiment, graphics acceleration module 1646 may be a GPUwith a plurality of graphics processing engines 1631(1)-1631(N) orgraphics processing engines 1631(1)-1631(N) may be individual GPUsintegrated on a common package, line card, or chip.

In at least one embodiment, accelerator integration circuit 1636includes a memory management unit (MMU) 1639 for performing variousmemory management functions such as virtual-to-physical memorytranslations (also referred to as effective-to-real memory translations)and memory access protocols for accessing system memory 1614. In atleast one embodiment, MMU 1639 may also include a translation lookasidebuffer (TLB) (not shown) for caching virtual/effective to physical/realaddress translations. In at least one embodiment, a cache 1638 can storecommands and data for efficient access by graphics processing engines1631(1)-1631(N). In at least one embodiment, data stored in cache 1638and graphics memories 1633(1)-1633(M) is kept coherent with core caches1662A-1662D, 1656 and system memory 1614, possibly using a fetch unit1644. As mentioned, this may be accomplished via proxy circuit 1625 onbehalf of cache 1638 and memories 1633(1)-1633(M) (e.g., sending updatesto cache 1638 related to modifications/accesses of cache lines onprocessor caches 1662A-1662D, 1656 and receiving updates from cache1638).

In at least one embodiment, a set of registers 1645 store context datafor threads executed by graphics processing engines 1631(1)-1631(N) anda context management circuit 1648 manages thread contexts. For example,context management circuit 1648 may perform save and restore operationsto save and restore contexts of various threads during contexts switches(e.g., where a first thread is saved and a second thread is stored sothat a second thread can be execute by a graphics processing engine).For example, on a context switch, context management circuit 1648 maystore current register values to a designated region in memory (e.g.,identified by a context pointer). It may then restore register valueswhen returning to a context. In at least one embodiment, an interruptmanagement circuit 1647 receives and processes interrupts received fromsystem devices.

In one implementation, virtual/effective addresses from a graphicsprocessing engine 1631 are translated to real/physical addresses insystem memory 1614 by MMU 1639. In at least one embodiment, acceleratorintegration circuit 1636 supports multiple (e.g., 4, 8, 16) graphicsaccelerator modules 1646 and/or other accelerator devices. In at leastone embodiment, graphics accelerator module 1646 may be dedicated to asingle application executed on processor 1607 or may be shared betweenmultiple applications. In at least one embodiment, a virtualizedgraphics execution environment is presented in which resources ofgraphics processing engines 1631(1)-1631(N) are shared with multipleapplications or virtual machines (VMs). In at least one embodiment,resources may be subdivided into “slices” which are allocated todifferent VMs and/or applications based on processing requirements andpriorities associated with VMs and/or applications.

In at least one embodiment, accelerator integration circuit 1636performs as a bridge to a system for graphics acceleration module 1646and provides address translation and system memory cache services. Inaddition, in at least one embodiment, accelerator integration circuit1636 may provide virtualization facilities for a host processor tomanage virtualization of graphics processing engines 1631(1)-1631(N),interrupts, and memory management.

In at least one embodiment, because hardware resources of graphicsprocessing engines 1631(1)-1631(N) are mapped explicitly to a realaddress space seen by host processor 1607, any host processor canaddress these resources directly using an effective address value. In atleast one embodiment, one function of accelerator integration circuit1636 is physical separation of graphics processing engines1631(1)-1631(N) so that they appear to a system as independent units.

In at least one embodiment, one or more graphics memories1633(1)-1633(M) are coupled to each of graphics processing engines1631(1)-1631(N), respectively and N=M. In at least one embodiment,graphics memories 1633(1)-1633(M) store instructions and data beingprocessed by each of graphics processing engines 1631(1)-1631(N). In atleast one embodiment, graphics memories 1633(1)-1633(M) may be volatilememories such as DRAMs (including stacked DRAMs), GDDR memory (e.g.,GDDR5, GDDR6), or HBM, and/or may be non-volatile memories such as 3D)XPoint or Nano-Ram.

In one embodiment, to reduce data traffic over high-speed link 1640,biasing techniques are used to ensure that data stored in graphicsmemories 1633(1)-1633(M) is data which will be used most frequently bygraphics processing engines 1631(1)-1631(N) and preferably not used bycores 1660A-1660D (at least not frequently). Similarly, in at least oneembodiment, a biasing mechanism attempts to keep data needed by cores(and preferably not graphics processing engines 1631(1)-1631(N)) withincaches 1662A-1662D, 1656 and system memory 1614.

FIG. 16C illustrates another exemplary embodiment in which acceleratorintegration circuit 1636 is integrated within processor 1607. In thisembodiment, graphics processing engines 1631(1)-1631(N) communicatedirectly over high-speed link 1640 to accelerator integration circuit1636 via interface 1637 and interface 1635 (which, again, may be anyform of bus or interface protocol). In at least one embodiment,accelerator integration circuit 1636 may perform similar operations asthose described with respect to FIG. 16B, but potentially at a higherthroughput given its close proximity to coherence bus 1664 and caches1662A-1662D, 1656. One embodiment supports different programming modelsincluding a dedicated-process programming model (no graphicsacceleration module virtualization) and shared programming models (withvirtualization), which may include programming models which arecontrolled by accelerator integration circuit 1636 and programmingmodels which are controlled by graphics acceleration module 1646.

In at least one embodiment, graphics processing engines 1631(1)-1631(N)are dedicated to a single application or process under a singleoperating system. In at least one embodiment, a single application canfunnel other application requests to graphics processing engines1631(1)-1631(N), providing virtualization within a VM/partition.

In at least one embodiment, graphics processing engines 1631(1)-1631(N),may be shared by multiple VM/application partitions. In at least oneembodiment, shared models may use a system hypervisor to virtualizegraphics processing engines 1631(1)-1631(N) to allow access by eachoperating system. In at least one embodiment, for single-partitionsystems without a hypervisor, graphics processing engines1631(1)-1631(N) are owned by an operating system. In at least oneembodiment, an operating system can virtualize graphics processingengines 1631(1)-1631(N) to provide access to each process orapplication.

In at least one embodiment, graphics acceleration module 1646 or anindividual graphics processing engine 1631(1)-1631(N) selects a processelement using a process handle. In at least one embodiment, processelements are stored in system memory 1614 and are addressable using aneffective address to real address translation technique describedherein. In at least one embodiment, a process handle may be animplementation-specific value provided to a host process whenregistering its context with graphics processing engine 1631(1)-1631(N)(that is, calling system software to add a process element to a processelement linked list). In at least one embodiment, a lower 16-bits of aprocess handle may be an offset of a process element within a processelement linked list.

FIG. 16D illustrates an exemplary accelerator integration slice 1690. Inat least one embodiment, a “slice” comprises a specified portion ofprocessing resources of accelerator integration circuit 1636. In atleast one embodiment, an application is effective address space 1682within system memory 1614 stores process elements 1683. In at least oneembodiment, process elements 1683 are stored in response to GPUinvocations 1681 from applications 1680 executed on processor 1607. Inat least one embodiment, a process element 1683 contains process statefor corresponding application 1680. In at least one embodiment, a workdescriptor (WD) 1684 contained in process element 1683 can be a singlejob requested by an application or may contain a pointer to a queue ofjobs. In at least one embodiment, WD 1684 is a pointer to a job requestqueue in an application's effective address space 1682.

In at least one embodiment, graphics acceleration module 1646 and/orindividual graphics processing engines 1631(1)-1631(N) can be shared byall or a subset of processes in a system. In at least one embodiment, aninfrastructure for setting up process states and sending a WD 1684 to agraphics acceleration module 1646 to start a job in a virtualizedenvironment may be included.

In at least one embodiment, a dedicated-process programming model isimplementation-specific. In at least one embodiment, in this model, asingle process owns graphics acceleration module 1646 or an individualgraphics processing engine 1631. In at least one embodiment, whengraphics acceleration module 1646 is owned by a single process, ahypervisor initializes accelerator integration circuit 1636 for anowning partition and an operating system initializes acceleratorintegration circuit 1636 for an owning process when graphicsacceleration module 1646 is assigned.

In at least one embodiment, in operation, a WD fetch unit 1691 inaccelerator integration slice 1690 fetches next WD 1684, which includesan indication of work to be done by one or more graphics processingengines of graphics acceleration module 1646. In at least oneembodiment, data from WD 1684 may be stored in registers 1645 and usedby MMU 1639, interrupt management circuit 1647 and/or context managementcircuit 1648 as illustrated. For example, one embodiment of MMU 1639includes segment/page walk circuitry for accessing segment/page tables1686 within an OS virtual address space 1685. In at least oneembodiment, interrupt management circuit 1647 may process interruptevents 1692 received from graphics acceleration module 1646. In at leastone embodiment, when performing graphics operations, an effectiveaddress 1693 generated by a graphics processing engine 1631(1)-1631(N)is translated to a real address by MMU 1639.

In one embodiment, registers 1645 are duplicated for each graphicsprocessing engine 1631(1)-1631(N) and/or graphics acceleration module1646 and may be initialized by a hypervisor or an operating system. Inat least one embodiment, each of these duplicated registers may beincluded in an accelerator integration slice 1690. Exemplary registersthat may be initialized by a hypervisor are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Hypervisor Initialized Registers Register # Description 1 SliceControl Register 2 Real Address (RA) Scheduled Processes Area Pointer 3Authority Mask Override Register 4 Interrupt Vector Table Entry Offset 5Interrupt Vector Table Entry Limit 6 State Register 7 Logical PartitionID 8 Real address (RA) Hypervisor Accelerator Utilization Record Pointer9 Storage Description Register

Exemplary registers that may be initialized by an operating system areshown in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Operating System Initialized Registers Register # Description 1Process and Thread Identification 2 Effective Address (EA) ContextSave/Restore Pointer 3 Virtual Address (VA) Accelerator UtilizationRecord Pointer 4 Virtual Address (VA) Storage Segment Table Pointer 5Authority Mask 6 Work descriptor

In at least one embodiment, each WD 1684 is specific to a particulargraphics acceleration module 1646 and/or graphics processing engines1631(1)-1631(N). In at least one embodiment, it contains all informationrequired by a graphics processing engine 1631(1)-1631(N) to do work, orit can be a pointer to a memory location where an application has set upa command queue of work to be completed.

FIG. 16E illustrates additional details for one exemplary embodiment ofa shared model. This embodiment includes a hypervisor real address space1698 in which a process element list 1699 is stored. In at least oneembodiment, hypervisor real address space 1698 is accessible via ahypervisor 1696 which virtualizes graphics acceleration module enginesfor operating system 1695.

In at least one embodiment, shared programming models allow for all or asubset of processes from all or a subset of partitions in a system touse a graphics acceleration module 1646. In at least one embodiment,there are two programming models where graphics acceleration module 1646is shared by multiple processes and partitions, namely time-slicedshared and graphics directed shared.

In at least one embodiment, in this model, system hypervisor 1696 ownsgraphics acceleration module 1646 and makes its function available toall operating systems 1695. In at least one embodiment, for a graphicsacceleration module 1646 to support virtualization by system hypervisor1696, graphics acceleration module 1646 may adhere to certainrequirements, such as (1) an application's job request must beautonomous (that is, state does not need to be maintained between jobs),or graphics acceleration module 1646 must provide a context save andrestore mechanism, (2) an application's job request is guaranteed bygraphics acceleration module 1646 to complete in a specified amount oftime, including any translation faults, or graphics acceleration module1646 provides an ability to preempt processing of a job, and (3)graphics acceleration module 1646 must be guaranteed fairness betweenprocesses when operating in a directed shared programming model.

In at least one embodiment, application 1680 is required to make anoperating system 1695 system call with a graphics acceleration moduletype, a work descriptor (WD), an authority mask register (AMR) value,and a context save/restore area pointer (CSRP). In at least oneembodiment, graphics acceleration module type describes a targetedacceleration function for a system call. In at least one embodiment,graphics acceleration module type may be a system-specific value. In atleast one embodiment, WD is formatted specifically for graphicsacceleration module 1646 and can be in a form of a graphics accelerationmodule 1646 command, an effective address pointer to a user-definedstructure, an effective address pointer to a queue of commands, or anyother data structure to describe work to be done by graphicsacceleration module 1646.

In at least one embodiment, an AMR value is an AMR state to use for acurrent process. In at least one embodiment, a value passed to anoperating system is similar to an application setting an AMR. In atleast one embodiment, if accelerator integration circuit 1636 (notshown) and graphics acceleration module 1646 implementations do notsupport a User Authority Mask Override Register (UAMOR), an operatingsystem may apply a current UAMOR value to an AMR value before passing anAMR in a hypervisor call. In at least one embodiment, hypervisor 1696may optionally apply a current Authority Mask Override Register (AMOR)value before placing an AMR into process element 1683. In at least oneembodiment, CSRP is one of registers 1645 containing an effectiveaddress of an area in an application's effective address space 1682 forgraphics acceleration module 1646 to save and restore context state. Inat least one embodiment, this pointer is optional if no state isrequired to be saved between jobs or when a job is preempted. In atleast one embodiment, context save/restore area may be pinned systemmemory.

Upon receiving a system call, operating system 1695 may verify thatapplication 1680 has registered and been given authority to use graphicsacceleration module 1646. In at least one embodiment, operating system1695 then calls hypervisor 1696 with information shown in Table 3.

TABLE 3 OS to Hypervisor Call Parameters Parameter # Description 1 Awork descriptor (WD) 2 An Authority Mask Register (AMR) value(potentially masked) 3 An effective address (EA) Context Save/RestoreArea Pointer (CSRP) 4 A process ID (PID) and optional thread ID (TID) 5A virtual address (VA) accelerator utilization record pointer (AURP) 6Virtual address of storage segment table pointer (SSTP) 7 A logicalinterrupt service number (LISN)

In at least one embodiment, upon receiving a hypervisor call, hypervisor1696 verifies that operating system 1695 has registered and been givenauthority to use graphics acceleration module 1646. In at least oneembodiment, hypervisor 1696 then puts process element 1683 into aprocess element linked list for a corresponding graphics accelerationmodule 1646 type. In at least one embodiment, a process element mayinclude information shown in Table 4.

TABLE 4 Process Element Information Element # Description 1 A workdescriptor (WD) 2 An Authority Mask Register (AMR) value (potentiallymasked). 3 An effective address (EA) Context Save/Restore Area Pointer(CSRP) 4 A process ID (PID) and optional thread ID (TID) 5 A virtualaddress (VA) accelerator utilization record pointer (AURP) 6 Virtualaddress of storage segment table pointer (SSTP) 7 A logical interruptservice number (LISN) 8 Interrupt vector table, derived from hypervisorcall parameters 9 A state register (SR) value 10 A logical partition ID(LPID) 11 A real address (RA) hypervisor accelerator utilization recordpointer 12 Storage Descriptor Register (SDR)

In at least one embodiment, hypervisor initializes a plurality ofaccelerator integration slice 1690 registers 1645.

As illustrated in FIG. 16F, in at least one embodiment, a unified memoryis used, addressable via a common virtual memory address space used toaccess physical processor memories 1601(1)-1601(N) and GPU memories1620(1)-1620(N). In this implementation, operations executed on GPUs1610(1)-1610(N) utilize a same virtual/effective memory address space toaccess processor memories 1601(1)-1601(M) and vice versa, therebysimplifying programmability. In at least one embodiment, a first portionof a virtual/effective address space is allocated to processor memory1601(1), a second portion to second processor memory 1601(N), a thirdportion to GPU memory 1620(1), and so on. In at least one embodiment, anentire virtual/effective memory space (sometimes referred to as aneffective address space) is thereby distributed across each of processormemories 1601 and GPU memories 1620, allowing any processor or GPU toaccess any physical memory with a virtual address mapped to that memory.

In one embodiment, bias/coherence management circuitry 1694A-1694Ewithin one or more of MMUs 1639A-1639E ensures cache coherence betweencaches of one or more host processors (e.g., 1605) and GPUs 1610 andimplements biasing techniques indicating physical memories in whichcertain types of data should be stored. In at least one embodiment,while multiple instances of bias/coherence management circuitry1694A-1694E are illustrated in FIG. 16F, bias/coherence circuitry may beimplemented within an MMU of one or more host processors 1605 and/orwithin accelerator integration circuit 1636.

One embodiment allows GPU memories 1620 to be mapped as part of systemmemory, and accessed using shared virtual memory (SVM) technology, butwithout suffering performance drawbacks associated with full systemcache coherence. In at least one embodiment, an ability for GPU memories1620 to be accessed as system memory without onerous cache coherenceoverhead provides a beneficial operating environment for GPU offload. Inat least one embodiment, this arrangement allows software of hostprocessor 1605 to setup operands and access computation results, withoutoverhead of tradition I/O DMA data copies. In at least one embodiment,such traditional copies involve driver calls, interrupts and memorymapped I/O (MMIO) accesses that are all inefficient relative to simplememory accesses. In at least one embodiment, an ability to access GPUmemories 1620 without cache coherence overheads can be critical toexecution time of an offloaded computation. In at least one embodiment,in cases with substantial streaming write memory traffic, for example,cache coherence overhead can significantly reduce an effective writebandwidth seen by a GPU 1610. In at least one embodiment, efficiency ofoperand setup, efficiency of results access, and efficiency of GPUcomputation may play a role in determining effectiveness of a GPUoffload.

In at least one embodiment, selection of GPU bias and host processorbias is driven by a bias tracker data structure. In at least oneembodiment, a bias table may be used, for example, which may be apage-granular structure (e.g., controlled at a granularity of a memorypage) that includes 1 or 2 bits per GPU-attached memory page. In atleast one embodiment, a bias table may be implemented in a stolen memoryrange of one or more GPU memories 1620, with or without a bias cache ina GPU 1610 (e.g., to cache frequently/recently used entries of a biastable). Alternatively, in at least one embodiment, an entire bias tablemay be maintained within a GPU.

In at least one embodiment, a bias table entry associated with eachaccess to a GPU attached memory 1620 is accessed prior to actual accessto a GPU memory, causing following operations. In at least oneembodiment, local requests from a GPU 1610 that find their page in GPUbias are forwarded directly to a corresponding GPU memory 1620. In atleast one embodiment, local requests from a GPU that find their page inhost bias are forwarded to processor 1605 (e.g., over a high-speed linkas described herein). In at least one embodiment, requests fromprocessor 1605 that find a requested page in host processor biascomplete a request like a normal memory read. Alternatively, requestsdirected to a GPU-biased page may be forwarded to a GPU 1610. In atleast one embodiment, a GPU may then transition a page to a hostprocessor bias if it is not currently using a page. In at least oneembodiment, a bias state of a page can be changed either by asoftware-based mechanism, a hardware-assisted software-based mechanism,or, for a limited set of cases, a purely hardware-based mechanism.

In at least one embodiment, one mechanism for changing bias stateemploys an API call (e.g., OpenCL), which, in turn, calls a GPU's devicedriver which, in turn, sends a message (or enqueues a commanddescriptor) to a GPU directing it to change a bias state and, for sometransitions, perform a cache flushing operation in a host. In at leastone embodiment, a cache flushing operation is used for a transition fromhost processor 1605 bias to GPU bias, but is not for an oppositetransition.

In one embodiment, cache coherency is maintained by temporarilyrendering GPU-biased pages uncacheable by host processor 1605. In atleast one embodiment, to access these pages, processor 1605 may requestaccess from GPU 1610, which may or may not grant access right away. Inat least one embodiment, thus, to reduce communication between processor1605 and GPU 1610 it is beneficial to ensure that GPU-biased pages arethose which are required by a GPU but not host processor 1605 and viceversa.

Hardware structure(s) 815 are used to perform one or more embodiments.Details regarding a hardware structure(s) 815 may be provided herein inconjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B.

FIG. 17 illustrates exemplary integrated circuits and associatedgraphics processors that may be fabricated using one or more IP cores,according to various embodiments described herein. In addition to whatis illustrated, other logic and circuits may be included in at least oneembodiment, including additional graphics processors/cores, peripheralinterface controllers, or general-purpose processor cores.

FIG. 17 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary system on a chipintegrated circuit 1700 that may be fabricated using one or more IPcores, according to at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment,integrated circuit 1700 includes one or more application processor(s)1705 (e.g., CPUs), at least one graphics processor 1710, and mayadditionally include an image processor 1715 and/or a video processor1720, any of which may be a modular IP core. In at least one embodiment,integrated circuit 1700 includes peripheral or bus logic including a USBcontroller 1725, a UART controller 1730, an SPI/SDIO controller 1735,and an I²2 S/I²2 C controller 1740. In at least one embodiment,integrated circuit 1700 can include a display device 1745 coupled to oneor more of a high-definition multimedia interface (HDMI) controller 1750and a mobile industry processor interface (MIPI) display interface 1755.In at least one embodiment, storage may be provided by a flash memorysubsystem 1760 including flash memory and a flash memory controller. Inat least one embodiment, a memory interface may be provided via a memorycontroller 1765 for access to SDRAM or SRAM memory devices. In at leastone embodiment, some integrated circuits additionally include anembedded security engine 1770.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 may be used inintegrated circuit 1700 for inferencing or predicting operations based,at least in part, on weight parameters calculated using neural networktraining operations, neural network functions and/or architectures, orneural network use cases described herein.

FIGS. 18A-18B illustrate exemplary integrated circuits and associatedgraphics processors that may be fabricated using one or more IP cores,according to various embodiments described herein. In addition to whatis illustrated, other logic and circuits may be included in at least oneembodiment, including additional graphics processors/cores, peripheralinterface controllers, or general-purpose processor cores.

FIGS. 18A-18B are block diagrams illustrating exemplary graphicsprocessors for use within an SoC, according to embodiments describedherein. FIG. 18A illustrates an exemplary graphics processor 1810 of asystem on a chip integrated circuit that may be fabricated using one ormore IP cores, according to at least one embodiment. FIG. 18Billustrates an additional exemplary graphics processor 1840 of a systemon a chip integrated circuit that may be fabricated using one or more IPcores, according to at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment,graphics processor 1810 of FIG. 18A is a low power graphics processorcore. In at least one embodiment, graphics processor 1840 of FIG. 18B isa higher performance graphics processor core. In at least oneembodiment, each of graphics processors 1810, 1840 can be variants ofgraphics processor 1710 of FIG. 17.

In at least one embodiment, graphics processor 1810 includes a vertexprocessor 1805 and one or more fragment processor(s) 1815A-1815N (e.g.,1815A, 1815B, 1815C, 1815D, through 1815N-1, and 1815N). In at least oneembodiment, graphics processor 1810 can execute different shaderprograms via separate logic, such that vertex processor 1805 isoptimized to execute operations for vertex shader programs, while one ormore fragment processor(s) 1815A-1815N execute fragment (e.g., pixel)shading operations for fragment or pixel shader programs. In at leastone embodiment, vertex processor 1805 performs a vertex processing stageof a 3D graphics pipeline and generates primitives and vertex data. Inat least one embodiment, fragment processor(s) 1815A-1815N use primitiveand vertex data generated by vertex processor 1805 to produce aframebuffer that is displayed on a display device. In at least oneembodiment, fragment processor(s) 1815A-1815N are optimized to executefragment shader programs as provided for in an OpenGL API, which may beused to perform similar operations as a pixel shader program as providedfor in a Direct 3D API.

In at least one embodiment, graphics processor 1810 additionallyincludes one or more memory management units (MMUs) 1820A-1820B,cache(s) 1825A-1825B, and circuit interconnect(s) 1830A-1830B. In atleast one embodiment, one or more MMU(s) 1820A-1820B provide for virtualto physical address mapping for graphics processor 1810, including forvertex processor 1805 and/or fragment processor(s) 1815A-1815N, whichmay reference vertex or image/texture data stored in memory, in additionto vertex or image/texture data stored in one or more cache(s)1825A-1825B. In at least one embodiment, one or more MMU(s) 1820A-1820Bmay be synchronized with other MMUs within a system, including one ormore MMUs associated with one or more application processor(s) 1705,image processors 1715, and/or video processors 1720 of FIG. 17, suchthat each processor 1705-1720 can participate in a shared or unifiedvirtual memory system. In at least one embodiment, one or more circuitinterconnect(s) 1830A-1830B enable graphics processor 1810 to interfacewith other IP cores within SoC, either via an internal bus of SoC or viaa direct connection.

In at least one embodiment, graphics processor 1840 includes one or moreshader core(s) 1855A-1855N (e.g., 1855A, 1855B, 1855C, 1855D, 1855E,1855F, through 1855N-1, and 1855N) as shown in FIG. 18B, which providesfor a unified shader core architecture in which a single core or type orcore can execute all types of programmable shader code, including shaderprogram code to implement vertex shaders, fragment shaders, and/orcompute shaders. In at least one embodiment, a number of shader corescan vary. In at least one embodiment, graphics processor 1840 includesan inter-core task manager 1845, which acts as a thread dispatcher todispatch execution threads to one or more shader cores 1855A-1855N and atiling unit 1858 to accelerate tiling operations for tile-basedrendering, in which rendering operations for a scene are subdivided inimage space, for example to exploit local spatial coherence within ascene or to optimize use of internal caches.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 may be used inintegrated circuit 18A and/or 18B for inferencing or predictingoperations based, at least in part, on weight parameters calculatedusing neural network training operations, neural network functionsand/or architectures, or neural network use cases described herein.

FIGS. 19A-19B illustrate additional exemplary graphics processor logicaccording to embodiments described herein. FIG. 19A illustrates agraphics core 1900 that may be included within graphics processor 1710of FIG. 17, in at least one embodiment, and may be a unified shader core1855A-1855N as in FIG. 18B in at least one embodiment. FIG. 19Billustrates a highly-parallel general-purpose graphics processing unit(“GPGPU”) 1930 suitable for deployment on a multi-chip module in atleast one embodiment.

In at least one embodiment, graphics core 1900 includes a sharedinstruction cache 1902, a texture unit 1918, and a cache/shared memory1920 that are common to execution resources within graphics core 1900.In at least one embodiment, graphics core 1900 can include multipleslices 1901A-1901N or a partition for each core, and a graphicsprocessor can include multiple instances of graphics core 1900. In atleast one embodiment, slices 1901A-1901N can include support logicincluding a local instruction cache 1904A-1904N, a thread scheduler1906A-1906N, a thread dispatcher 1908A-1908N, and a set of registers1910A-1910N. In at least one embodiment, slices 1901A-1901N can includea set of additional function units (AFUs 1912A-1912N), floating-pointunits (FPUs 1914A-1914N), integer arithmetic logic units (ALUs1916A-1916N), address computational units (ACUs 1913A-1913N),double-precision floating-point units (DPFPUs 1915A-1915N), and matrixprocessing units (MPUs 1917A-1917N).

In at least one embodiment, FPUs 1914A-1914N can performsingle-precision (32-bit) and half-precision (16-bit) floating pointoperations, while DPFPUs 1915A-1915N perform double precision (64-bit)floating point operations. In at least one embodiment, ALUs 1916A-1916Ncan perform variable precision integer operations at 8-bit, 16-bit, and32-bit precision, and can be configured for mixed precision operations.In at least one embodiment, MPUs 1917A-1917N can also be configured formixed precision matrix operations, including half-precision floatingpoint and 8-bit integer operations. In at least one embodiment, MPUs1917-1917N can perform a variety of matrix operations to acceleratemachine learning application frameworks, including enabling support foraccelerated general matrix to matrix multiplication (GEMM). In at leastone embodiment, AFUs 1912A-1912N can perform additional logic operationsnot supported by floating-point or integer units, includingtrigonometric operations (e.g., sine, cosine, etc.).

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 may be used in graphicscore 1900 for inferencing or predicting operations based, at least inpart, on weight parameters calculated using neural network trainingoperations, neural network functions and/or architectures, or neuralnetwork use cases described herein.

FIG. 19B illustrates a general-purpose processing unit (GPGPU) 1930 thatcan be configured to enable highly-parallel compute operations to beperformed by an array of graphics processing units, in at least oneembodiment. In at least one embodiment, GPGPU 1930 can be linkeddirectly to other instances of GPGPU 1930 to create a multi-GPU clusterto improve training speed for deep neural networks. In at least oneembodiment, GPGPU 1930 includes a host interface 1932 to enable aconnection with a host processor. In at least one embodiment, hostinterface 1932 is a PCI Express interface. In at least one embodiment,host interface 1932 can be a vendor-specific communications interface orcommunications fabric. In at least one embodiment, GPGPU 1930 receivescommands from a host processor and uses a global scheduler 1934 todistribute execution threads associated with those commands to a set ofcompute clusters 1936A-1936H. In at least one embodiment, computeclusters 1936A-1936H share a cache memory 1938. In at least oneembodiment, cache memory 1938 can serve as a higher-level cache forcache memories within compute clusters 1936A-1936H.

In at least one embodiment, GPGPU 1930 includes memory 1944A-1944Bcoupled with compute clusters 1936A-1936H via a set of memorycontrollers 1942A-1942B. In at least one embodiment, memory 1944A-1944Bcan include various types of memory devices including dynamic randomaccess memory (DRAM) or graphics random access memory, such assynchronous graphics random access memory (SGRAM), including graphicsdouble data rate (GDDR) memory.

In at least one embodiment, compute clusters 1936A-1936H each include aset of graphics cores, such as graphics core 1900 of FIG. 19A, which caninclude multiple types of integer and floating point logic units thatcan perform computational operations at a range of precisions includingsuited for machine learning computations. For example, in at least oneembodiment, at least a subset of floating point units in each of computeclusters 1936A-1936H can be configured to perform 16-bit or 32-bitfloating point operations, while a different subset of floating pointunits can be configured to perform 64-bit floating point operations.

In at least one embodiment, multiple instances of GPGPU 1930 can beconfigured to operate as a compute cluster. In at least one embodiment,communication used by compute clusters 1936A-1936H for synchronizationand data exchange varies across embodiments. In at least one embodiment,multiple instances of GPGPU 1930 communicate over host interface 1932.In at least one embodiment, GPGPU 1930 includes an I/O hub 1939 thatcouples GPGPU 1930 with a GPU link 1940 that enables a direct connectionto other instances of GPGPU 1930. In at least one embodiment, GPU link1940 is coupled to a dedicated GPU-to-GPU bridge that enablescommunication and synchronization between multiple instances of GPGPU1930. In at least one embodiment, GPU link 1940 couples with ahigh-speed interconnect to transmit and receive data to other GPGPUs orparallel processors. In at least one embodiment, multiple instances ofGPGPU 1930 are located in separate data processing systems andcommunicate via a network device that is accessible via host interface1932. In at least one embodiment GPU link 1940 can be configured toenable a connection to a host processor in addition to or as analternative to host interface 1932.

In at least one embodiment, GPGPU 1930 can be configured to train neuralnetworks. In at least one embodiment, GPGPU 1930 can be used within aninferencing platform. In at least one embodiment, in which GPGPU 1930 isused for inferencing, GPGPU 1930 may include fewer compute clusters1936A-1936H relative to when GPGPU 1930 is used for training a neuralnetwork. In at least one embodiment, memory technology associated withmemory 1944A-1944B may differ between inferencing and trainingconfigurations, with higher bandwidth memory technologies devoted totraining configurations. In at least one embodiment, an inferencingconfiguration of GPGPU 1930 can support inferencing specificinstructions. For example, in at least one embodiment, an inferencingconfiguration can provide support for one or more 8-bit integer dotproduct instructions, which may be used during inferencing operationsfor deployed neural networks.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 may be used in GPGPU1930 for inferencing or predicting operations based, at least in part,on weight parameters calculated using neural network trainingoperations, neural network functions and/or architectures, or neuralnetwork use cases described herein.

FIG. 20 is a block diagram illustrating a computing system 2000according to at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment,computing system 2000 includes a processing subsystem 2001 having one ormore processor(s) 2002 and a system memory 2004 communicating via aninterconnection path that may include a memory hub 2005. In at least oneembodiment, memory hub 2005 may be a separate component within a chipsetcomponent or may be integrated within one or more processor(s) 2002. Inat least one embodiment, memory hub 2005 couples with an I/O subsystem2011 via a communication link 2006. In at least one embodiment, I/Osubsystem 2011 includes an I/O hub 2007 that can enable computing system2000 to receive input from one or more input device(s) 2008. In at leastone embodiment, I/O hub 2007 can enable a display controller, which maybe included in one or more processor(s) 2002, to provide outputs to oneor more display device(s) 2010A. In at least one embodiment, one or moredisplay device(s) 2010A coupled with I/O hub 2007 can include a local,internal, or embedded display device.

In at least one embodiment, processing subsystem 2001 includes one ormore parallel processor(s) 2012 coupled to memory hub 2005 via a bus orother communication link 2013. In at least one embodiment, communicationlink 2013 may use one of any number of standards based communicationlink technologies or protocols, such as, but not limited to PCI Express,or may be a vendor-specific communications interface or communicationsfabric. In at least one embodiment, one or more parallel processor(s)2012 form a computationally focused parallel or vector processing systemthat can include a large number of processing cores and/or processingclusters, such as a many-integrated core (MIC) processor. In at leastone embodiment, some or all of parallel processor(s) 2012 form agraphics processing subsystem that can output pixels to one of one ormore display device(s) 2010A coupled via I/O Hub 2007. In at least oneembodiment, parallel processor(s) 2012 can also include a displaycontroller and display interface (not shown) to enable a directconnection to one or more display device(s) 2010B.

In at least one embodiment, a system storage unit 2014 can connect toI/O hub 2007 to provide a storage mechanism for computing system 2000.In at least one embodiment, an I/O switch 2016 can be used to provide aninterface mechanism to enable connections between I/O hub 2007 and othercomponents, such as a network adapter 2018 and/or a wireless networkadapter 2019 that may be integrated into platform, and various otherdevices that can be added via one or more add-in device(s) 2020. In atleast one embodiment, network adapter 2018 can be an Ethernet adapter oranother wired network adapter. In at least one embodiment, wirelessnetwork adapter 2019 can include one or more of a Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, nearfield communication (NFC), or other network device that includes one ormore wireless radios.

In at least one embodiment, computing system 2000 can include othercomponents not explicitly shown, including USB or other portconnections, optical storage drives, video capture devices, and like,may also be connected to I/O hub 2007. In at least one embodiment,communication paths interconnecting various components in FIG. 20 may beimplemented using any suitable protocols, such as PCI (PeripheralComponent Interconnect) based protocols (e.g., PCI-Express), or otherbus or point-to-point communication interfaces and/or protocol(s), suchas NV-Link high-speed interconnect, or interconnect protocols.

In at least one embodiment, parallel processor(s) 2012 incorporatecircuitry optimized for graphics and video processing, including, forexample, video output circuitry, and constitutes a graphics processingunit (GPU). In at least one embodiment, parallel processor(s) 2012incorporate circuitry optimized for general purpose processing. In atleast embodiment, components of computing system 2000 may be integratedwith one or more other system elements on a single integrated circuit.For example, in at least one embodiment, parallel processor(s) 2012,memory hub 2005, processor(s) 2002, and I/O hub 2007 can be integratedinto a system on chip (SoC) integrated circuit. In at least oneembodiment, components of computing system 2000 can be integrated into asingle package to form a system in package (SIP) configuration. In atleast one embodiment, at least a portion of components of computingsystem 2000 can be integrated into a multi-chip module (MCM), which canbe interconnected with other multi-chip modules into a modular computingsystem.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 may be used in systemFIG. 2000 for inferencing or predicting operations based, at least inpart, on weight parameters calculated using neural network trainingoperations, neural network functions and/or architectures, or neuralnetwork use cases described herein.

Processors

FIG. 21A illustrates a parallel processor 2100 according to at least oneembodiment. In at least one embodiment, various components of parallelprocessor 2100 may be implemented using one or more integrated circuitdevices, such as programmable processors, application specificintegrated circuits (ASICs), or field programmable gate arrays (FPGA).In at least one embodiment, illustrated parallel processor 2100 is avariant of one or more parallel processor(s) 2012 shown in FIG. 20according to an exemplary embodiment.

In at least one embodiment, parallel processor 2100 includes a parallelprocessing unit 2102. In at least one embodiment, parallel processingunit 2102 includes an I/O unit 2104 that enables communication withother devices, including other instances of parallel processing unit2102. In at least one embodiment, I/O unit 2104 may be directlyconnected to other devices. In at least one embodiment, I/O unit 2104connects with other devices via use of a hub or switch interface, suchas a memory hub 2105. In at least one embodiment, connections betweenmemory hub 2105 and I/O unit 2104 form a communication link 2113. In atleast one embodiment, I/O unit 2104 connects with a host interface 2106and a memory crossbar 2116, where host interface 2106 receives commandsdirected to performing processing operations and memory crossbar 2116receives commands directed to performing memory operations.

In at least one embodiment, when host interface 2106 receives a commandbuffer via I/O unit 2104, host interface 2106 can direct work operationsto perform those commands to a front end 2108. In at least oneembodiment, front end 2108 couples with a scheduler 2110, which isconfigured to distribute commands or other work items to a processingcluster array 2112. In at least one embodiment, scheduler 2110 ensuresthat processing cluster array 2112 is properly configured and in a validstate before tasks are distributed to a cluster of processing clusterarray 2112. In at least one embodiment, scheduler 2110 is implementedvia firmware logic executing on a microcontroller. In at least oneembodiment, microcontroller implemented scheduler 2110 is configurableto perform complex scheduling and work distribution operations at coarseand fine granularity, enabling rapid preemption and context switching ofthreads executing on processing array 2112. In at least one embodiment,host software can prove workloads for scheduling on processing clusterarray 2112 via one of multiple graphics processing paths. In at leastone embodiment, workloads can then be automatically distributed acrossprocessing array cluster 2112 by scheduler 2110 logic within amicrocontroller including scheduler 2110.

In at least one embodiment, processing cluster array 2112 can include upto “N” processing clusters (e.g., cluster 2114A, cluster 2114B, throughcluster 2114N), where “N” represents a positive integer (which may be adifferent integer “N” than used in other figures). In at least oneembodiment, each cluster 2114A-2114N of processing cluster array 2112can execute a large number of concurrent threads. In at least oneembodiment, scheduler 2110 can allocate work to clusters 2114A-2114N ofprocessing cluster array 2112 using various scheduling and/or workdistribution algorithms, which may vary depending on workload arisingfor each type of program or computation. In at least one embodiment,scheduling can be handled dynamically by scheduler 2110, or can beassisted in part by compiler logic during compilation of program logicconfigured for execution by processing cluster array 2112. In at leastone embodiment, different clusters 2114A-2114N of processing clusterarray 2112 can be allocated for processing different types of programsor for performing different types of computations.

In at least one embodiment, processing cluster array 2112 can beconfigured to perform various types of parallel processing operations.In at least one embodiment, processing cluster array 2112 is configuredto perform general-purpose parallel compute operations. For example, inat least one embodiment, processing cluster array 2112 can include logicto execute processing tasks including filtering of video and/or audiodata, performing modeling operations, including physics operations, andperforming data transformations.

In at least one embodiment, processing cluster array 2112 is configuredto perform parallel graphics processing operations. In at least oneembodiment, processing cluster array 2112 can include additional logicto support execution of such graphics processing operations, includingbut not limited to, texture sampling logic to perform textureoperations, as well as tessellation logic and other vertex processinglogic. In at least one embodiment, processing cluster array 2112 can beconfigured to execute graphics processing related shader programs suchas, but not limited to, vertex shaders, tessellation shaders, geometryshaders, and pixel shaders. In at least one embodiment, parallelprocessing unit 2102 can transfer data from system memory via I/O unit2104 for processing. In at least one embodiment, during processing,transferred data can be stored to on-chip memory (e.g., parallelprocessor memory 2122) during processing, then written back to systemmemory.

In at least one embodiment, when parallel processing unit 2102 is usedto perform graphics processing, scheduler 2110 can be configured todivide a processing workload into approximately equal sized tasks, tobetter enable distribution of graphics processing operations to multipleclusters 2114A-2114N of processing cluster array 2112. In at least oneembodiment, portions of processing cluster array 2112 can be configuredto perform different types of processing. For example, in at least oneembodiment, a first portion may be configured to perform vertex shadingand topology generation, a second portion may be configured to performtessellation and geometry shading, and a third portion may be configuredto perform pixel shading or other screen space operations, to produce arendered image for display. In at least one embodiment, intermediatedata produced by one or more of clusters 2114A-2114N may be stored inbuffers to allow intermediate data to be transmitted between clusters2114A-2114N for further processing.

In at least one embodiment, processing cluster array 2112 can receiveprocessing tasks to be executed via scheduler 2110, which receivescommands defining processing tasks from front end 2108. In at least oneembodiment, processing tasks can include indices of data to beprocessed, e.g., surface (patch) data, primitive data, vertex data,and/or pixel data, as well as state parameters and commands defining howdata is to be processed (e.g., what program is to be executed). In atleast one embodiment, scheduler 2110 may be configured to fetch indicescorresponding to tasks or may receive indices from front end 2108. In atleast one embodiment, front end 2108 can be configured to ensureprocessing cluster array 2112 is configured to a valid state before aworkload specified by incoming command buffers (e.g., batch-buffers,push buffers, etc.) is initiated.

In at least one embodiment, each of one or more instances of parallelprocessing unit 2102 can couple with a parallel processor memory 2122.In at least one embodiment, parallel processor memory 2122 can beaccessed via memory crossbar 2116, which can receive memory requestsfrom processing cluster array 2112 as well as I/O unit 2104. In at leastone embodiment, memory crossbar 2116 can access parallel processormemory 2122 via a memory interface 2118. In at least one embodiment,memory interface 2118 can include multiple partition units (e.g.,partition unit 2120A, partition unit 2120B, through partition unit2120N) that can each couple to a portion (e.g., memory unit) of parallelprocessor memory 2122. In at least one embodiment, a number of partitionunits 2120A-2120N is configured to be equal to a number of memory units,such that a first partition unit 2120A has a corresponding first memoryunit 2124A, a second partition unit 2120B has a corresponding memoryunit 2124B, and an N-th partition unit 2120N has a corresponding N-thmemory unit 2124N. In at least one embodiment, a number of partitionunits 2120A-2120N may not be equal to a number of memory units.

In at least one embodiment, memory units 2124A-2124N can include varioustypes of memory devices, including dynamic random access memory (DRAM)or graphics random access memory, such as synchronous graphics randomaccess memory (SGRAM), including graphics double data rate (GDDR)memory. In at least one embodiment, memory units 2124A-2124N may alsoinclude 3D stacked memory, including but not limited to high bandwidthmemory (HBM). In at least one embodiment, render targets, such as framebuffers or texture maps may be stored across memory units 2124A-2124N,allowing partition units 2120A-2120N to write portions of each rendertarget in parallel to efficiently use available bandwidth of parallelprocessor memory 2122. In at least one embodiment, a local instance ofparallel processor memory 2122 may be excluded in favor of a unifiedmemory design that utilizes system memory in conjunction with localcache memory.

In at least one embodiment, any one of clusters 2114A-2114N ofprocessing cluster array 2112 can process data that will be written toany of memory units 2124A-2124N within parallel processor memory 2122.In at least one embodiment, memory crossbar 2116 can be configured totransfer an output of each cluster 2114A-2114N to any partition unit2120A-2120N or to another cluster 2114A-2114N, which can performadditional processing operations on an output. In at least oneembodiment, each cluster 2114A-2114N can communicate with memoryinterface 2118 through memory crossbar 2116 to read from or write tovarious external memory devices. In at least one embodiment, memorycrossbar 2116 has a connection to memory interface 2118 to communicatewith I/O unit 2104, as well as a connection to a local instance ofparallel processor memory 2122, enabling processing units withindifferent processing clusters 2114A-2114N to communicate with systemmemory or other memory that is not local to parallel processing unit2102. In at least one embodiment, memory crossbar 2116 can use virtualchannels to separate traffic streams between clusters 2114A-2114N andpartition units 2120A-2120N.

In at least one embodiment, multiple instances of parallel processingunit 2102 can be provided on a single add-in card, or multiple add-incards can be interconnected. In at least one embodiment, differentinstances of parallel processing unit 2102 can be configured tointeroperate even if different instances have different numbers ofprocessing cores, different amounts of local parallel processor memory,and/or other configuration differences. For example, in at least oneembodiment, some instances of parallel processing unit 2102 can includehigher precision floating point units relative to other instances. In atleast one embodiment, systems incorporating one or more instances ofparallel processing unit 2102 or parallel processor 2100 can beimplemented in a variety of configurations and form factors, includingbut not limited to desktop, laptop, or handheld personal computers,servers, workstations, game consoles, and/or embedded systems.

FIG. 21B is a block diagram of a partition unit 2120 according to atleast one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, partition unit 2120 isan instance of one of partition units 2120A-2120N of FIG. 21A. In atleast one embodiment, partition unit 2120 includes an L2 cache 2121, aframe buffer interface 2125, and a ROP 2126 (raster operations unit). Inat least one embodiment, L2 cache 2121 is a read/write cache that isconfigured to perform load and store operations received from memorycrossbar 2116 and ROP 2126. In at least one embodiment, read misses andurgent write-back requests are output by L2 cache 2121 to frame bufferinterface 2125 for processing. In at least one embodiment, updates canalso be sent to a frame buffer via frame buffer interface 2125 forprocessing. In at least one embodiment, frame buffer interface 2125interfaces with one of memory units in parallel processor memory, suchas memory units 2124A-2124N of FIG. 21 (e.g., within parallel processormemory 2122).

In at least one embodiment, ROP 2126 is a processing unit that performsraster operations such as stencil, z test, blending, etc. In at leastone embodiment, ROP 2126 then outputs processed graphics data that isstored in graphics memory. In at least one embodiment, ROP 2126 includescompression logic to compress depth or color data that is written tomemory and decompress depth or color data that is read from memory. Inat least one embodiment, compression logic can be lossless compressionlogic that makes use of one or more of multiple compression algorithms.In at least one embodiment, a type of compression that is performed byROP 2126 can vary based on statistical characteristics of data to becompressed. For example, in at least one embodiment, delta colorcompression is performed on depth and color data on a per-tile basis.

In at least one embodiment, ROP 2126 is included within each processingcluster (e.g., cluster 2114A-2114N of FIG. 21A) instead of withinpartition unit 2120. In at least one embodiment, read and write requestsfor pixel data are transmitted over memory crossbar 2116 instead ofpixel fragment data. In at least one embodiment, processed graphics datamay be displayed on a display device, such as one of one or more displaydevice(s) 2010 of FIG. 20, routed for further processing by processor(s)2002, or routed for further processing by one of processing entitieswithin parallel processor 2100 of FIG. 21A.

FIG. 21C is a block diagram of a processing cluster 2114 within aparallel processing unit according to at least one embodiment. In atleast one embodiment, a processing cluster is an instance of one ofprocessing clusters 2114A-2114N of FIG. 21A. In at least one embodiment,processing cluster 2114 can be configured to execute many threads inparallel, where “thread” refers to an instance of a particular programexecuting on a particular set of input data. In at least one embodiment,single-instruction, multiple-data (SIMD) instruction issue techniquesare used to support parallel execution of a large number of threadswithout providing multiple independent instruction units. In at leastone embodiment, single-instruction, multiple-thread (SIMT) techniquesare used to support parallel execution of a large number of generallysynchronized threads, using a common instruction unit configured toissue instructions to a set of processing engines within each one ofprocessing clusters.

In at least one embodiment, operation of processing cluster 2114 can becontrolled via a pipeline manager 2132 that distributes processing tasksto SIMT parallel processors. In at least one embodiment, pipelinemanager 2132 receives instructions from scheduler 2110 of FIG. 21A andmanages execution of those instructions via a graphics multiprocessor2134 and/or a texture unit 2136. In at least one embodiment, graphicsmultiprocessor 2134 is an exemplary instance of a SIMT parallelprocessor. However, in at least one embodiment, various types of SIMTparallel processors of differing architectures may be included withinprocessing cluster 2114. In at least one embodiment, one or moreinstances of graphics multiprocessor 2134 can be included within aprocessing cluster 2114. In at least one embodiment, graphicsmultiprocessor 2134 can process data and a data crossbar 2140 can beused to distribute processed data to one of multiple possibledestinations, including other shader units. In at least one embodiment,pipeline manager 2132 can facilitate distribution of processed data byspecifying destinations for processed data to be distributed via datacrossbar 2140.

In at least one embodiment, each graphics multiprocessor 2134 withinprocessing cluster 2114 can include an identical set of functionalexecution logic (e.g., arithmetic logic units, load-store units, etc.).In at least one embodiment, functional execution logic can be configuredin a pipelined manner in which new instructions can be issued beforeprevious instructions are complete. In at least one embodiment,functional execution logic supports a variety of operations includinginteger and floating point arithmetic, comparison operations, Booleanoperations, bit-shifting, and computation of various algebraicfunctions. In at least one embodiment, same functional-unit hardware canbe leveraged to perform different operations and any combination offunctional units may be present.

In at least one embodiment, instructions transmitted to processingcluster 2114 constitute a thread. In at least one embodiment, a set ofthreads executing across a set of parallel processing engines is athread group. In at least one embodiment, a thread group executes acommon program on different input data. In at least one embodiment, eachthread within a thread group can be assigned to a different processingengine within a graphics multiprocessor 2134. In at least oneembodiment, a thread group may include fewer threads than a number ofprocessing engines within graphics multiprocessor 2134. In at least oneembodiment, when a thread group includes fewer threads than a number ofprocessing engines, one or more of processing engines may be idle duringcycles in which that thread group is being processed. In at least oneembodiment, a thread group may also include more threads than a numberof processing engines within graphics multiprocessor 2134. In at leastone embodiment, when a thread group includes more threads than number ofprocessing engines within graphics multiprocessor 2134, processing canbe performed over consecutive clock cycles. In at least one embodiment,multiple thread groups can be executed concurrently on a graphicsmultiprocessor 2134.

In at least one embodiment, graphics multiprocessor 2134 includes aninternal cache memory to perform load and store operations. In at leastone embodiment, graphics multiprocessor 2134 can forego an internalcache and use a cache memory (e.g., L1 cache 2148) within processingcluster 2114. In at least one embodiment, each graphics multiprocessor2134 also has access to L2 caches within partition units (e.g.,partition units 2120A-2120N of FIG. 21A) that are shared among allprocessing clusters 2114 and may be used to transfer data betweenthreads. In at least one embodiment, graphics multiprocessor 2134 mayalso access off-chip global memory, which can include one or more oflocal parallel processor memory and/or system memory. In at least oneembodiment, any memory external to parallel processing unit 2102 may beused as global memory. In at least one embodiment, processing cluster2114 includes multiple instances of graphics multiprocessor 2134 and canshare common instructions and data, which may be stored in L1 cache2148.

In at least one embodiment, each processing cluster 2114 may include anMMU 2145 (memory management unit) that is configured to map virtualaddresses into physical addresses. In at least one embodiment, one ormore instances of MMU 2145 may reside within memory interface 2118 ofFIG. 21A. In at least one embodiment, MMU 2145 includes a set of pagetable entries (PTEs) used to map a virtual address to a physical addressof a tile and optionally a cache line index. In at least one embodiment,MMU 2145 may include address translation lookaside buffers (TLB) orcaches that may reside within graphics multiprocessor 2134 or L1 2148cache or processing cluster 2114. In at least one embodiment, a physicaladdress is processed to distribute surface data access locally to allowfor efficient request interleaving among partition units. In at leastone embodiment, a cache line index may be used to determine whether arequest for a cache line is a hit or miss.

In at least one embodiment, a processing cluster 2114 may be configuredsuch that each graphics multiprocessor 2134 is coupled to a texture unit2136 for performing texture mapping operations, e.g., determiningtexture sample positions, reading texture data, and filtering texturedata. In at least one embodiment, texture data is read from an internaltexture L1 cache (not shown) or from an L1 cache within graphicsmultiprocessor 2134 and is fetched from an L2 cache, local parallelprocessor memory, or system memory, as needed. In at least oneembodiment, each graphics multiprocessor 2134 outputs processed tasks todata crossbar 2140 to provide processed task to another processingcluster 2114 for further processing or to store processed task in an L2cache, local parallel processor memory, or system memory via memorycrossbar 2116. In at least one embodiment, a preROP 2142 (pre-rasteroperations unit) is configured to receive data from graphicsmultiprocessor 2134, and direct data to ROP units, which may be locatedwith partition units as described herein (e.g., partition units2120A-2120N of FIG. 21A). In at least one embodiment, preROP 2142 unitcan perform optimizations for color blending, organizing pixel colordata, and performing address translations.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 may be used in graphicsprocessing cluster 2114 for inferencing or predicting operations based,at least in part, on weight parameters calculated using neural networktraining operations, neural network functions and/or architectures, orneural network use cases described herein.

FIG. 21D shows a graphics multiprocessor 2134 according to at least oneembodiment. In at least one embodiment, graphics multiprocessor 2134couples with pipeline manager 2132 of processing cluster 2114. In atleast one embodiment, graphics multiprocessor 2134 has an executionpipeline including but not limited to an instruction cache 2152, aninstruction unit 2154, an address mapping unit 2156, a register file2158, one or more general purpose graphics processing unit (GPGPU) cores2162, and one or more load/store units 2166. In at least one embodiment,GPGPU cores 2162 and load/store units 2166 are coupled with cache memory2172 and shared memory 2170 via a memory and cache interconnect 2168.

In at least one embodiment, instruction cache 2152 receives a stream ofinstructions to execute from pipeline manager 2132. In at least oneembodiment, instructions are cached in instruction cache 2152 anddispatched for execution by an instruction unit 2154. In at least oneembodiment, instruction unit 2154 can dispatch instructions as threadgroups (e.g., warps), with each thread of thread group assigned to adifferent execution unit within GPGPU cores 2162. In at least oneembodiment, an instruction can access any of a local, shared, or globaladdress space by specifying an address within a unified address space.In at least one embodiment, address mapping unit 2156 can be used totranslate addresses in a unified address space into a distinct memoryaddress that can be accessed by load/store units 2166.

In at least one embodiment, register file 2158 provides a set ofregisters for functional units of graphics multiprocessor 2134. In atleast one embodiment, register file 2158 provides temporary storage foroperands connected to data paths of functional units (e.g., GPGPU cores2162, load/store units 2166) of graphics multiprocessor 2134. In atleast one embodiment, register file 2158 is divided between each offunctional units such that each functional unit is allocated a dedicatedportion of register file 2158. In at least one embodiment, register file2158 is divided between different warps being executed by graphicsmultiprocessor 2134.

In at least one embodiment, GPGPU cores 2162 can each include floatingpoint units (FPUs) and/or integer arithmetic logic units (ALUs) that areused to execute instructions of graphics multiprocessor 2134. In atleast one embodiment, GPGPU cores 2162 can be similar in architecture orcan differ in architecture. In at least one embodiment, a first portionof GPGPU cores 2162 include a single precision FPU and an integer ALUwhile a second portion of GPGPU cores include a double precision FPU. Inat least one embodiment, FPUs can implement IEEE 754-2008 standardfloating point arithmetic or enable variable precision floating pointarithmetic. In at least one embodiment, graphics multiprocessor 2134 canadditionally include one or more fixed function or special functionunits to perform specific functions such as copy rectangle or pixelblending operations. In at least one embodiment, one or more of GPGPUcores 2162 can also include fixed or special function logic.

In at least one embodiment, GPGPU cores 2162 include SIMD logic capableof performing a single instruction on multiple sets of data. In at leastone embodiment, GPGPU cores 2162 can physically execute SIMD4, SIMD8,and SIMD16 instructions and logically execute SIMD1, SIMD2, and SIMD32instructions. In at least one embodiment, SIMD instructions for GPGPUcores can be generated at compile time by a shader compiler orautomatically generated when executing programs written and compiled forsingle program multiple data (SPMD) or SIMT architectures. In at leastone embodiment, multiple threads of a program configured for an SIMTexecution model can executed via a single SIMD instruction. For example,in at least one embodiment, eight SIMT threads that perform same orsimilar operations can be executed in parallel via a single SIMD8 logicunit.

In at least one embodiment, memory and cache interconnect 2168 is aninterconnect network that connects each functional unit of graphicsmultiprocessor 2134 to register file 2158 and to shared memory 2170. Inat least one embodiment, memory and cache interconnect 2168 is acrossbar interconnect that allows load/store unit 2166 to implement loadand store operations between shared memory 2170 and register file 2158.In at least one embodiment, register file 2158 can operate at a samefrequency as GPGPU cores 2162, thus data transfer between GPGPU cores2162 and register file 2158 can have very low latency. In at least oneembodiment, shared memory 2170 can be used to enable communicationbetween threads that execute on functional units within graphicsmultiprocessor 2134. In at least one embodiment, cache memory 2172 canbe used as a data cache for example, to cache texture data communicatedbetween functional units and texture unit 2136. In at least oneembodiment, shared memory 2170 can also be used as a program managedcache. In at least one embodiment, threads executing on GPGPU cores 2162can programmatically store data within shared memory in addition toautomatically cached data that is stored within cache memory 2172.

In at least one embodiment, a parallel processor or GPGPU as describedherein is communicatively coupled to host/processor cores to accelerategraphics operations, machine-learning operations, pattern analysisoperations, and various general purpose GPU (GPGPU) functions. In atleast one embodiment, a GPU may be communicatively coupled to hostprocessor/cores over a bus or other interconnect (e.g., a high-speedinterconnect such as PCIe or NVLink). In at least one embodiment, a GPUmay be integrated on a package or chip as cores and communicativelycoupled to cores over an internal processor bus/interconnect internal toa package or chip. In at least one embodiment, regardless a manner inwhich a GPU is connected, processor cores may allocate work to such GPUin a form of sequences of commands/instructions contained in a workdescriptor. In at least one embodiment, that GPU then uses dedicatedcircuitry/logic for efficiently processing these commands/instructions.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 may be used in graphicsmultiprocessor 2134 for inferencing or predicting operations based, atleast in part, on weight parameters calculated using neural networktraining operations, neural network functions and/or architectures, orneural network use cases described herein.

FIG. 22 illustrates a multi-GPU computing system 2200, according to atleast one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, multi-GPU computingsystem 2200 can include a processor 2202 coupled to multiple generalpurpose graphics processing units (GPGPUs) 2206A-D via a host interfaceswitch 2204. In at least one embodiment, host interface switch 2204 is aPCI express switch device that couples processor 2202 to a PCI expressbus over which processor 2202 can communicate with GPGPUs 2206A-D. In atleast one embodiment, GPGPUs 2206A-D can interconnect via a set ofhigh-speed point-to-point GPU-to-GPU links 2216. In at least oneembodiment, GPU-to-GPU links 2216 connect to each of GPGPUs 2206A-D viaa dedicated GPU link. In at least one embodiment, P2P GPU links 2216enable direct communication between each of GPGPUs 2206A-D withoutrequiring communication over host interface bus 2204 to which processor2202 is connected. In at least one embodiment, with GPU-to-GPU trafficdirected to P2P GPU links 2216, host interface bus 2204 remainsavailable for system memory access or to communicate with otherinstances of multi-GPU computing system 2200, for example, via one ormore network devices. While in at least one embodiment GPGPUs 2206A-Dconnect to processor 2202 via host interface switch 2204, in at leastone embodiment processor 2202 includes direct support for P2P GPU links2216 and can connect directly to GPGPUs 2206A-D.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 may be used in multi-GPUcomputing system 2200 for inferencing or predicting operations based, atleast in part, on weight parameters calculated using neural networktraining operations, neural network functions and/or architectures, orneural network use cases described herein.

FIG. 23 is a block diagram of a graphics processor 2300, according to atleast one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, graphics processor2300 includes a ring interconnect 2302, a pipeline front-end 2304, amedia engine 2337, and graphics cores 2380A-2380N. In at least oneembodiment, ring interconnect 2302 couples graphics processor 2300 toother processing units, including other graphics processors or one ormore general-purpose processor cores. In at least one embodiment,graphics processor 2300 is one of many processors integrated within amulti-core processing system.

In at least one embodiment, graphics processor 2300 receives batches ofcommands via ring interconnect 2302. In at least one embodiment,incoming commands are interpreted by a command streamer 2303 in pipelinefront-end 2304. In at least one embodiment, graphics processor 2300includes scalable execution logic to perform 3D geometry processing andmedia processing via graphics core(s) 2380A-2380N. In at least oneembodiment, for 3D geometry processing commands, command streamer 2303supplies commands to geometry pipeline 2336. In at least one embodiment,for at least some media processing commands, command streamer 2303supplies commands to a video front end 2334, which couples with mediaengine 2337. In at least one embodiment, media engine 2337 includes aVideo Quality Engine (VQE) 2330 for video and image post-processing anda multi-format encode/decode (MFX) 2333 engine to providehardware-accelerated media data encoding and decoding. In at least oneembodiment, geometry pipeline 2336 and media engine 2337 each generateexecution threads for thread execution resources provided by at leastone graphics core 2380.

In at least one embodiment, graphics processor 2300 includes scalablethread execution resources featuring graphics cores 2380A-2380N (whichcan be modular and are sometimes referred to as core slices), eachhaving multiple sub-cores 2350A-50N, 2360A-2360N (sometimes referred toas core sub-slices). In at least one embodiment, graphics processor 2300can have any number of graphics cores 2380A. In at least one embodiment,graphics processor 2300 includes a graphics core 2380A having at least afirst sub-core 2350A and a second sub-core 2360A. In at least oneembodiment, graphics processor 2300 is a low power processor with asingle sub-core (e.g., 2350A). In at least one embodiment, graphicsprocessor 2300 includes multiple graphics cores 2380A-2380N, eachincluding a set of first sub-cores 2350A-2350N and a set of secondsub-cores 2360A-2360N. In at least one embodiment, each sub-core infirst sub-cores 2350A-2350N includes at least a first set of executionunits 2352A-2352N and media/texture samplers 2354A-2354N. In at leastone embodiment, each sub-core in second sub-cores 2360A-2360N includesat least a second set of execution units 2362A-2362N and samplers2364A-2364N. In at least one embodiment, each sub-core 2350A-2350N,2360A-2360N shares a set of shared resources 2370A-2370N. In at leastone embodiment, shared resources include shared cache memory and pixeloperation logic.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, inference and/or training logic 815 may be used in graphicsprocessor 2300 for inferencing or predicting operations based, at leastin part, on weight parameters calculated using neural network trainingoperations, neural network functions and/or architectures, or neuralnetwork use cases described herein.

FIG. 24 is a block diagram illustrating micro-architecture for aprocessor 2400 that may include logic circuits to perform instructions,according to at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment,processor 2400 may perform instructions, including x86 instructions, ARMinstructions, specialized instructions for application-specificintegrated circuits (ASICs), etc. In at least one embodiment, processor2400 may include registers to store packed data, such as 64-bit wideMIIVIX™ registers in microprocessors enabled with MMX technology fromIntel Corporation of Santa Clara, Calif. In at least one embodiment, MMXregisters, available in both integer and floating point forms, mayoperate with packed data elements that accompany single instruction,multiple data (“SIMD”) and streaming SIMD extensions (“SSE”)instructions. In at least one embodiment, 128-bit wide XMM registersrelating to SSE2, SSE3, SSE4, AVX, or beyond (referred to generically as“S SEx”) technology may hold such packed data operands. In at least oneembodiment, processor 2400 may perform instructions to acceleratemachine learning or deep learning algorithms, training, or inferencing.

In at least one embodiment, processor 2400 includes an in-order frontend (“front end”) 2401 to fetch instructions to be executed and prepareinstructions to be used later in a processor pipeline. In at least oneembodiment, front end 2401 may include several units. In at least oneembodiment, an instruction prefetcher 2426 fetches instructions frommemory and feeds instructions to an instruction decoder 2428 which inturn decodes or interprets instructions. For example, in at least oneembodiment, instruction decoder 2428 decodes a received instruction intoone or more operations called “micro-instructions” or “micro-operations”(also called “micro ops” or “uops”) that a machine may execute. In atleast one embodiment, instruction decoder 2428 parses an instructioninto an opcode and corresponding data and control fields that may beused by micro-architecture to perform operations in accordance with atleast one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, a trace cache 2430 mayassemble decoded uops into program ordered sequences or traces in a uopqueue 2434 for execution. In at least one embodiment, when trace cache2430 encounters a complex instruction, a microcode ROM 2432 providesuops needed to complete an operation.

In at least one embodiment, some instructions may be converted into asingle micro-op, whereas others need several micro-ops to complete fulloperation. In at least one embodiment, if more than four micro-ops areneeded to complete an instruction, instruction decoder 2428 may accessmicrocode ROM 2432 to perform that instruction. In at least oneembodiment, an instruction may be decoded into a small number ofmicro-ops for processing at instruction decoder 2428. In at least oneembodiment, an instruction may be stored within microcode ROM 2432should a number of micro-ops be needed to accomplish such operation. Inat least one embodiment, trace cache 2430 refers to an entry pointprogrammable logic array (“PLA”) to determine a correctmicro-instruction pointer for reading microcode sequences to completeone or more instructions from microcode ROM 2432 in accordance with atleast one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, after microcode ROM2432 finishes sequencing micro-ops for an instruction, front end 2401 ofa machine may resume fetching micro-ops from trace cache 2430.

In at least one embodiment, out-of-order execution engine (“out of orderengine”) 2403 may prepare instructions for execution. In at least oneembodiment, out-of-order execution logic has a number of buffers tosmooth out and re-order flow of instructions to optimize performance asthey go down a pipeline and get scheduled for execution. In at least oneembodiment, out-of-order execution engine 2403 includes, withoutlimitation, an allocator/register renamer 2440, a memory uop queue 2442,an integer/floating point uop queue 2444, a memory scheduler 2446, afast scheduler 2402, a slow/general floating point scheduler(“slow/general FP scheduler”) 2404, and a simple floating pointscheduler (“simple FP scheduler”) 2406. In at least one embodiment, fastschedule 2402, slow/general floating point scheduler 2404, and simplefloating point scheduler 2406 are also collectively referred to hereinas “uop schedulers 2402, 2404, 2406.” In at least one embodiment,allocator/register renamer 2440 allocates machine buffers and resourcesthat each uop needs in order to execute. In at least one embodiment,allocator/register renamer 2440 renames logic registers onto entries ina register file. In at least one embodiment, allocator/register renamer2440 also allocates an entry for each uop in one of two uop queues,memory uop queue 2442 for memory operations and integer/floating pointuop queue 2444 for non-memory operations, in front of memory scheduler2446 and uop schedulers 2402, 2404, 2406. In at least one embodiment,uop schedulers 2402, 2404, 2406, determine when a uop is ready toexecute based on readiness of their dependent input register operandsources and availability of execution resources uops need to completetheir operation. In at least one embodiment, fast scheduler 2402 mayschedule on each half of a main clock cycle while slow/general floatingpoint scheduler 2404 and simple floating point scheduler 2406 mayschedule once per main processor clock cycle. In at least oneembodiment, uop schedulers 2402, 2404, 2406 arbitrate for dispatch portsto schedule uops for execution.

In at least one embodiment, execution block 2411 includes, withoutlimitation, an integer register file/bypass network 2408, a floatingpoint register file/bypass network (“FP register file/bypass network”)2410, address generation units (“AGUs”) 2412 and 2414, fast ArithmeticLogic Units (ALUs) (“fast ALUs”) 2416 and 2418, a slow Arithmetic LogicUnit (“slow ALU”) 2420, a floating point ALU (“FP”) 2422, and a floatingpoint move unit (“FP move”) 2424. In at least one embodiment, integerregister file/bypass network 2408 and floating point registerfile/bypass network 2410 are also referred to herein as “register files2408, 2410.” In at least one embodiment, AGUSs 2412 and 2414, fast ALUs2416 and 2418, slow ALU 2420, floating point ALU 2422, and floatingpoint move unit 2424 are also referred to herein as “execution units2412, 2414, 2416, 2418, 2420, 2422, and 2424.” In at least oneembodiment, execution block 2411 may include, without limitation, anynumber (including zero) and type of register files, bypass networks,address generation units, and execution units, in any combination.

In at least one embodiment, register networks 2408, 2410 may be arrangedbetween uop schedulers 2402, 2404, 2406, and execution units 2412, 2414,2416, 2418, 2420, 2422, and 2424. In at least one embodiment, integerregister file/bypass network 2408 performs integer operations. In atleast one embodiment, floating point register file/bypass network 2410performs floating point operations. In at least one embodiment, each ofregister networks 2408, 2410 may include, without limitation, a bypassnetwork that may bypass or forward just completed results that have notyet been written into a register file to new dependent uops. In at leastone embodiment, register networks 2408, 2410 may communicate data witheach other. In at least one embodiment, integer register file/bypassnetwork 2408 may include, without limitation, two separate registerfiles, one register file for a low-order thirty-two bits of data and asecond register file for a high order thirty-two bits of data. In atleast one embodiment, floating point register file/bypass network 2410may include, without limitation, 128-bit wide entries because floatingpoint instructions typically have operands from 64 to 128 bits in width.

In at least one embodiment, execution units 2412, 2414, 2416, 2418,2420, 2422, 2424 may execute instructions. In at least one embodiment,register networks 2408, 2410 store integer and floating point dataoperand values that micro-instructions need to execute. In at least oneembodiment, processor 2400 may include, without limitation, any numberand combination of execution units 2412, 2414, 2416, 2418, 2420, 2422,2424. In at least one embodiment, floating point ALU 2422 and floatingpoint move unit 2424, may execute floating point, MMX, SIMD, AVX andSSE, or other operations, including specialized machine learninginstructions. In at least one embodiment, floating point ALU 2422 mayinclude, without limitation, a 64-bit by 64-bit floating point dividerto execute divide, square root, and remainder micro ops. In at least oneembodiment, instructions involving a floating point value may be handledwith floating point hardware. In at least one embodiment, ALU operationsmay be passed to fast ALUs 2416, 2418. In at least one embodiment, fastALUS 2416, 2418 may execute fast operations with an effective latency ofhalf a clock cycle. In at least one embodiment, most complex integeroperations go to slow ALU 2420 as slow ALU 2420 may include, withoutlimitation, integer execution hardware for long-latency type ofoperations, such as a multiplier, shifts, flag logic, and branchprocessing. In at least one embodiment, memory load/store operations maybe executed by AGUs 2412, 2414. In at least one embodiment, fast ALU2416, fast ALU 2418, and slow ALU 2420 may perform integer operations on64-bit data operands. In at least one embodiment, fast ALU 2416, fastALU 2418, and slow ALU 2420 may be implemented to support a variety ofdata bit sizes including sixteen, thirty-two, 128, 256, etc. In at leastone embodiment, floating point ALU 2422 and floating point move unit2424 may be implemented to support a range of operands having bits ofvarious widths, such as 128-bit wide packed data operands in conjunctionwith SIMD and multimedia instructions.

In at least one embodiment, uop schedulers 2402, 2404, 2406 dispatchdependent operations before a parent load has finished executing. In atleast one embodiment, as uops may be speculatively scheduled andexecuted in processor 2400, processor 2400 may also include logic tohandle memory misses. In at least one embodiment, if a data load missesin a data cache, there may be dependent operations in flight in apipeline that have left a scheduler with temporarily incorrect data. Inat least one embodiment, a replay mechanism tracks and re-executesinstructions that use incorrect data. In at least one embodiment,dependent operations might need to be replayed and independent ones maybe allowed to complete. In at least one embodiment, schedulers and areplay mechanism of at least one embodiment of a processor may also bedesigned to catch instruction sequences for text string comparisonoperations.

In at least one embodiment, “registers” may refer to on-board processorstorage locations that may be used as part of instructions to identifyoperands. In at least one embodiment, registers may be those that may beusable from outside of a processor (from a programmer's perspective). Inat least one embodiment, registers might not be limited to a particulartype of circuit. Rather, in at least one embodiment, a register maystore data, provide data, and perform functions described herein. In atleast one embodiment, registers described herein may be implemented bycircuitry within a processor using any number of different techniques,such as dedicated physical registers, dynamically allocated physicalregisters using register renaming, combinations of dedicated anddynamically allocated physical registers, etc. In at least oneembodiment, integer registers store 32-bit integer data. A register fileof at least one embodiment also contains eight multimedia SIMD registersfor packed data.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment portions or all of inference and/or training logic 815 may beincorporated into execution block 2411 and other memory or registersshown or not shown. For example, in at least one embodiment, trainingand/or inferencing techniques described herein may use one or more ofALUs illustrated in execution block 2411. Moreover, weight parametersmay be stored in on-chip or off-chip memory and/or registers (shown ornot shown) that configure ALUs of execution block 2411 to perform one ormore machine learning algorithms, neural network architectures, usecases, or training techniques described herein.

FIG. 25 illustrates a deep learning application processor 2500,according to at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, deeplearning application processor 2500 uses instructions that, if executedby deep learning application processor 2500, cause deep learningapplication processor 2500 to perform some or all of processes andtechniques described throughout this disclosure. In at least oneembodiment, deep learning application processor 2500 is anapplication-specific integrated circuit (ASIC). In at least oneembodiment, application processor 2500 performs matrix multiplyoperations either “hard-wired” into hardware as a result of performingone or more instructions or both. In at least one embodiment, deeplearning application processor 2500 includes, without limitation,processing clusters 2510(1)-2510(12), Inter-Chip Links (“ICLs”)2520(1)-2520(12), Inter-Chip Controllers (“ICCs”) 2530(1)-2530(2),high-bandwidth memory second generation (“HBM2”) 2540(1)-2540(4), memorycontrollers (“Mem Ctrlrs”) 2542(1)-2542(4), high bandwidth memoryphysical layer (“HBM PHY”) 2544(1)-2544(4), a management-controllercentral processing unit (“management-controller CPU”) 2550, a SerialPeripheral Interface, Inter-Integrated Circuit, and General PurposeInput/Output block (“SPI, I²C, GPIO”) 2560, a peripheral componentinterconnect express controller and direct memory access block (“PCIeController and DMA”) 2570, and a sixteen-lane peripheral componentinterconnect express port (“PCI Express x 16”) 2580.

In at least one embodiment, processing clusters 2510 may perform deeplearning operations, including inference or prediction operations basedon weight parameters calculated one or more training techniques,including those described herein. In at least one embodiment, eachprocessing cluster 2510 may include, without limitation, any number andtype of processors. In at least one embodiment, deep learningapplication processor 2500 may include any number and type of processingclusters 2500. In at least one embodiment, Inter-Chip Links 2520 arebi-directional. In at least one embodiment, Inter-Chip Links 2520 andInter-Chip Controllers 2530 enable multiple deep learning applicationprocessors 2500 to exchange information, including activationinformation resulting from performing one or more machine learningalgorithms embodied in one or more neural networks. In at least oneembodiment, deep learning application processor 2500 may include anynumber (including zero) and type of ICLs 2520 and ICCs 2530.

In at least one embodiment, HBM2s 2540 provide a total of 32 Gigabytes(GB) of memory. In at least one embodiment, HBM2 2540(i) is associatedwith both memory controller 2542(i) and HBM PHY 2544(i) where “i” is anarbitrary integer. In at least one embodiment, any number of HBM2s 2540may provide any type and total amount of high bandwidth memory and maybe associated with any number (including zero) and type of memorycontrollers 2542 and HBM PHYs 2544. In at least one embodiment, SPI,I²C, GPIO 2560, PCIe Controller and DMA 2570, and/or PCIe 2580 may bereplaced with any number and type of blocks that enable any number andtype of communication standards in any technically feasible fashion.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, deep learning application processor is used to train amachine learning model, such as a neural network, to predict or inferinformation provided to deep learning application processor 2500. In atleast one embodiment, deep learning application processor 2500 is usedto infer or predict information based on a trained machine learningmodel (e.g., neural network) that has been trained by another processoror system or by deep learning application processor 2500. In at leastone embodiment, processor 2500 may be used to perform one or more neuralnetwork use cases described herein.

FIG. 26 is a block diagram of a neuromorphic processor 2600, accordingto at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, neuromorphicprocessor 2600 may receive one or more inputs from sources external toneuromorphic processor 2600. In at least one embodiment, these inputsmay be transmitted to one or more neurons 2602 within neuromorphicprocessor 2600. In at least one embodiment, neurons 2602 and componentsthereof may be implemented using circuitry or logic, including one ormore arithmetic logic units (ALUs). In at least one embodiment,neuromorphic processor 2600 may include, without limitation, thousandsor millions of instances of neurons 2602, but any suitable number ofneurons 2602 may be used. In at least one embodiment, each instance ofneuron 2602 may include a neuron input 2604 and a neuron output 2606. Inat least one embodiment, neurons 2602 may generate outputs that may betransmitted to inputs of other instances of neurons 2602. For example,in at least one embodiment, neuron inputs 2604 and neuron outputs 2606may be interconnected via synapses 2608.

In at least one embodiment, neurons 2602 and synapses 2608 may beinterconnected such that neuromorphic processor 2600 operates to processor analyze information received by neuromorphic processor 2600. In atleast one embodiment, neurons 2602 may transmit an output pulse (or“fire” or “spike”) when inputs received through neuron input 2604 exceeda threshold. In at least one embodiment, neurons 2602 may sum orintegrate signals received at neuron inputs 2604. For example, in atleast one embodiment, neurons 2602 may be implemented as leakyintegrate-and-fire neurons, wherein if a sum (referred to as a “membranepotential”) exceeds a threshold value, neuron 2602 may generate anoutput (or “fire”) using a transfer function such as a sigmoid orthreshold function. In at least one embodiment, a leakyintegrate-and-fire neuron may sum signals received at neuron inputs 2604into a membrane potential and may also apply a decay factor (or leak) toreduce a membrane potential. In at least one embodiment, a leakyintegrate-and-fire neuron may fire if multiple input signals arereceived at neuron inputs 2604 rapidly enough to exceed a thresholdvalue (i.e., before a membrane potential decays too low to fire). In atleast one embodiment, neurons 2602 may be implemented using circuits orlogic that receive inputs, integrate inputs into a membrane potential,and decay a membrane potential. In at least one embodiment, inputs maybe averaged, or any other suitable transfer function may be used.Furthermore, in at least one embodiment, neurons 2602 may include,without limitation, comparator circuits or logic that generate an outputspike at neuron output 2606 when result of applying a transfer functionto neuron input 2604 exceeds a threshold. In at least one embodiment,once neuron 2602 fires, it may disregard previously received inputinformation by, for example, resetting a membrane potential to 0 oranother suitable default value. In at least one embodiment, oncemembrane potential is reset to 0, neuron 2602 may resume normaloperation after a suitable period of time (or refractory period).

In at least one embodiment, neurons 2602 may be interconnected throughsynapses 2608. In at least one embodiment, synapses 2608 may operate totransmit signals from an output of a first neuron 2602 to an input of asecond neuron 2602. In at least one embodiment, neurons 2602 maytransmit information over more than one instance of synapse 2608. In atleast one embodiment, one or more instances of neuron output 2606 may beconnected, via an instance of synapse 2608, to an instance of neuroninput 2604 in same neuron 2602. In at least one embodiment, an instanceof neuron 2602 generating an output to be transmitted over an instanceof synapse 2608 may be referred to as a “pre-synaptic neuron” withrespect to that instance of synapse 2608. In at least one embodiment, aninstance of neuron 2602 receiving an input transmitted over an instanceof synapse 2608 may be referred to as a “post-synaptic neuron” withrespect to that instance of synapse 2608. Because an instance of neuron2602 may receive inputs from one or more instances of synapse 2608, andmay also transmit outputs over one or more instances of synapse 2608, asingle instance of neuron 2602 may therefore be both a “pre-synapticneuron” and “post-synaptic neuron,” with respect to various instances ofsynapses 2608, in at least one embodiment.

In at least one embodiment, neurons 2602 may be organized into one ormore layers. In at least one embodiment, each instance of neuron 2602may have one neuron output 2606 that may fan out through one or moresynapses 2608 to one or more neuron inputs 2604. In at least oneembodiment, neuron outputs 2606 of neurons 2602 in a first layer 2610may be connected to neuron inputs 2604 of neurons 2602 in a second layer2612. In at least one embodiment, layer 2610 may be referred to as a“feed-forward layer.” In at least one embodiment, each instance ofneuron 2602 in an instance of first layer 2610 may fan out to eachinstance of neuron 2602 in second layer 2612. In at least oneembodiment, first layer 2610 may be referred to as a “fully connectedfeed-forward layer.” In at least one embodiment, each instance of neuron2602 in an instance of second layer 2612 may fan out to fewer than allinstances of neuron 2602 in a third layer 2614. In at least oneembodiment, second layer 2612 may be referred to as a “sparselyconnected feed-forward layer.” In at least one embodiment, neurons 2602in second layer 2612 may fan out to neurons 2602 in multiple otherlayers, including to neurons 2602 also in second layer 2612. In at leastone embodiment, second layer 2612 may be referred to as a “recurrentlayer.” In at least one embodiment, neuromorphic processor 2600 mayinclude, without limitation, any suitable combination of recurrentlayers and feed-forward layers, including, without limitation, bothsparsely connected feed-forward layers and fully connected feed-forwardlayers.

In at least one embodiment, neuromorphic processor 2600 may include,without limitation, a reconfigurable interconnect architecture ordedicated hard-wired interconnects to connect synapse 2608 to neurons2602. In at least one embodiment, neuromorphic processor 2600 mayinclude, without limitation, circuitry or logic that allows synapses tobe allocated to different neurons 2602 as needed based on neural networktopology and neuron fan-in/out. For example, in at least one embodiment,synapses 2608 may be connected to neurons 2602 using an interconnectfabric, such as network-on-chip, or with dedicated connections. In atleast one embodiment, synapse interconnections and components thereofmay be implemented using circuitry or logic.

FIG. 27 is a block diagram of a processing system, according to at leastone embodiment. In at least one embodiment, system 2700 includes one ormore processors 2702 and one or more graphics processors 2708, and maybe a single processor desktop system, a multiprocessor workstationsystem, or a server system having a large number of processors 2702 orprocessor cores 2707. In at least one embodiment, system 2700 is aprocessing platform incorporated within a system-on-a-chip (SoC)integrated circuit for use in mobile, handheld, or embedded devices.

In at least one embodiment, system 2700 can include, or be incorporatedwithin a server-based gaming platform, a game console, including a gameand media console, a mobile gaming console, a handheld game console, oran online game console. In at least one embodiment, system 2700 is amobile phone, a smart phone, a tablet computing device or a mobileInternet device. In at least one embodiment, processing system 2700 canalso include, couple with, or be integrated within a wearable device,such as a smart watch wearable device, a smart eyewear device, anaugmented reality device, or a virtual reality device. In at least oneembodiment, processing system 2700 is a television or set top box devicehaving one or more processors 2702 and a graphical interface generatedby one or more graphics processors 2708.

In at least one embodiment, one or more processors 2702 each include oneor more processor cores 2707 to process instructions which, whenexecuted, perform operations for system and user software. In at leastone embodiment, each of one or more processor cores 2707 is configuredto process a specific instruction sequence 2709. In at least oneembodiment, instruction sequence 2709 may facilitate Complex InstructionSet Computing (CISC), Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC), orcomputing via a Very Long Instruction Word (VLIW). In at least oneembodiment, processor cores 2707 may each process a differentinstruction sequence 2709, which may include instructions to facilitateemulation of other instruction sequences. In at least one embodiment,processor core 2707 may also include other processing devices, such aDigital Signal Processor (DSP).

In at least one embodiment, processor 2702 includes a cache memory 2704.In at least one embodiment, processor 2702 can have a single internalcache or multiple levels of internal cache. In at least one embodiment,cache memory is shared among various components of processor 2702. In atleast one embodiment, processor 2702 also uses an external cache (e.g.,a Level-3 (L3) cache or Last Level Cache (LLC)) (not shown), which maybe shared among processor cores 2707 using known cache coherencytechniques. In at least one embodiment, a register file 2706 isadditionally included in processor 2702, which may include differenttypes of registers for storing different types of data (e.g., integerregisters, floating point registers, status registers, and aninstruction pointer register). In at least one embodiment, register file2706 may include general-purpose registers or other registers.

In at least one embodiment, one or more processor(s) 2702 are coupledwith one or more interface bus(es) 2710 to transmit communicationsignals such as address, data, or control signals between processor 2702and other components in system 2700. In at least one embodiment,interface bus 2710, in one embodiment, can be a processor bus, such as aversion of a Direct Media Interface (DMI) bus. In at least oneembodiment, interface bus 2710 is not limited to a DMI bus, and mayinclude one or more Peripheral Component Interconnect buses (e.g., PCI,PCI Express), memory busses, or other types of interface busses. In atleast one embodiment processor(s) 2702 include an integrated memorycontroller 2716 and a platform controller hub 2730. In at least oneembodiment, memory controller 2716 facilitates communication between amemory device and other components of system 2700, while platformcontroller hub (PCH) 2730 provides connections to I/O devices via alocal I/O bus.

In at least one embodiment, a memory device 2720 can be a dynamic randomaccess memory (DRAM) device, a static random access memory (SRAM)device, flash memory device, phase-change memory device, or some othermemory device having suitable performance to serve as process memory. Inat least one embodiment, memory device 2720 can operate as system memoryfor system 2700, to store data 2722 and instructions 2721 for use whenone or more processors 2702 executes an application or process. In atleast one embodiment, memory controller 2716 also couples with anoptional external graphics processor 2712, which may communicate withone or more graphics processors 2708 in processors 2702 to performgraphics and media operations. In at least one embodiment, a displaydevice 2711 can connect to processor(s) 2702. In at least oneembodiment, display device 2711 can include one or more of an internaldisplay device, as in a mobile electronic device or a laptop device, oran external display device attached via a display interface (e.g.,DisplayPort, etc.). In at least one embodiment, display device 2711 caninclude a head mounted display (HMD) such as a stereoscopic displaydevice for use in virtual reality (VR) applications or augmented reality(AR) applications.

In at least one embodiment, platform controller hub 2730 enablesperipherals to connect to memory device 2720 and processor 2702 via ahigh-speed I/O bus. In at least one embodiment, I/O peripherals include,but are not limited to, an audio controller 2746, a network controller2734, a firmware interface 2728, a wireless transceiver 2726, touchsensors 2725, a data storage device 2724 (e.g., hard disk drive, flashmemory, etc.). In at least one embodiment, data storage device 2724 canconnect via a storage interface (e.g., SATA) or via a peripheral bus,such as a Peripheral Component Interconnect bus (e.g., PCI, PCIExpress). In at least one embodiment, touch sensors 2725 can includetouch screen sensors, pressure sensors, or fingerprint sensors. In atleast one embodiment, wireless transceiver 2726 can be a Wi-Fitransceiver, a Bluetooth transceiver, or a mobile network transceiversuch as a 3G, 4G, or Long Term Evolution (LTE) transceiver. In at leastone embodiment, firmware interface 2728 enables communication withsystem firmware, and can be, for example, a unified extensible firmwareinterface (UEFI). In at least one embodiment, network controller 2734can enable a network connection to a wired network. In at least oneembodiment, a high-performance network controller (not shown) coupleswith interface bus 2710. In at least one embodiment, audio controller2746 is a multi-channel high definition audio controller. In at leastone embodiment, system 2700 includes an optional legacy I/O controller2740 for coupling legacy (e.g., Personal System 2 (PS/2)) devices tosystem 2700. In at least one embodiment, platform controller hub 2730can also connect to one or more Universal Serial Bus (USB) controllers2742 connect input devices, such as keyboard and mouse 2743combinations, a camera 2744, or other USB input devices.

In at least one embodiment, an instance of memory controller 2716 andplatform controller hub 2730 may be integrated into a discreet externalgraphics processor, such as external graphics processor 2712. In atleast one embodiment, platform controller hub 2730 and/or memorycontroller 2716 may be external to one or more processor(s) 2702. Forexample, in at least one embodiment, system 2700 can include an externalmemory controller 2716 and platform controller hub 2730, which may beconfigured as a memory controller hub and peripheral controller hubwithin a system chipset that is in communication with processor(s) 2702.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment portions or all of inference and/or training logic 815 may beincorporated into graphics processor 2700. For example, in at least oneembodiment, training and/or inferencing techniques described herein mayuse one or more of ALUs embodied in a 3D pipeline. Moreover, in at leastone embodiment, inferencing and/or training operations described hereinmay be done using logic other than logic illustrated in FIG. 8A or 8B.In at least one embodiment, weight parameters may be stored in on-chipor off-chip memory and/or registers (shown or not shown) that configureALUs of graphics processor 2700 to perform one or more machine learningalgorithms, neural network architectures, use cases, or trainingtechniques described herein.

FIG. 28 is a block diagram of a processor 2800 having one or moreprocessor cores 2802A-2802N, an integrated memory controller 2814, andan integrated graphics processor 2808, according to at least oneembodiment. In at least one embodiment, processor 2800 can includeadditional cores up to and including additional core 2802N representedby dashed lined boxes. In at least one embodiment, each of processorcores 2802A-2802N includes one or more internal cache units 2804A-2804N.In at least one embodiment, each processor core also has access to oneor more shared cached units 2806.

In at least one embodiment, internal cache units 2804A-2804N and sharedcache units 2806 represent a cache memory hierarchy within processor2800. In at least one embodiment, cache memory units 2804A-2804N mayinclude at least one level of instruction and data cache within eachprocessor core and one or more levels of shared mid-level cache, such asa Level 2 (L2), Level 3 (L3), Level 4 (L4), or other levels of cache,where a highest level of cache before external memory is classified asan LLC. In at least one embodiment, cache coherency logic maintainscoherency between various cache units 2806 and 2804A-2804N.

In at least one embodiment, processor 2800 may also include a set of oneor more bus controller units 2816 and a system agent core 2810. In atleast one embodiment, bus controller units 2816 manage a set ofperipheral buses, such as one or more PCI or PCI express busses. In atleast one embodiment, system agent core 2810 provides managementfunctionality for various processor components. In at least oneembodiment, system agent core 2810 includes one or more integratedmemory controllers 2814 to manage access to various external memorydevices (not shown).

In at least one embodiment, one or more of processor cores 2802A-2802Ninclude support for simultaneous multi-threading. In at least oneembodiment, system agent core 2810 includes components for coordinatingand operating cores 2802A-2802N during multi-threaded processing. In atleast one embodiment, system agent core 2810 may additionally include apower control unit (PCU), which includes logic and components toregulate one or more power states of processor cores 2802A-2802N andgraphics processor 2808.

In at least one embodiment, processor 2800 additionally includesgraphics processor 2808 to execute graphics processing operations. In atleast one embodiment, graphics processor 2808 couples with shared cacheunits 2806, and system agent core 2810, including one or more integratedmemory controllers 2814. In at least one embodiment, system agent core2810 also includes a display controller 2811 to drive graphics processoroutput to one or more coupled displays. In at least one embodiment,display controller 2811 may also be a separate module coupled withgraphics processor 2808 via at least one interconnect, or may beintegrated within graphics processor 2808.

In at least one embodiment, a ring-based interconnect unit 2812 is usedto couple internal components of processor 2800. In at least oneembodiment, an alternative interconnect unit may be used, such as apoint-to-point interconnect, a switched interconnect, or othertechniques. In at least one embodiment, graphics processor 2808 coupleswith ring interconnect 2812 via an I/O link 2813.

In at least one embodiment, I/O link 2813 represents at least one ofmultiple varieties of I/O interconnects, including an on package I/Ointerconnect which facilitates communication between various processorcomponents and a high-performance embedded memory module 2818, such asan eDRAM module. In at least one embodiment, each of processor cores2802A-2802N and graphics processor 2808 use embedded memory module 2818as a shared Last Level Cache.

In at least one embodiment, processor cores 2802A-2802N are homogeneouscores executing a common instruction set architecture. In at least oneembodiment, processor cores 2802A-2802N are heterogeneous in terms ofinstruction set architecture (ISA), where one or more of processor cores2802A-2802N execute a common instruction set, while one or more othercores of processor cores 2802A-2802N executes a subset of a commoninstruction set or a different instruction set. In at least oneembodiment, processor cores 2802A-2802N are heterogeneous in terms ofmicroarchitecture, where one or more cores having a relatively higherpower consumption couple with one or more power cores having a lowerpower consumption. In at least one embodiment, processor 2800 can beimplemented on one or more chips or as an SoC integrated circuit.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment portions or all of inference and/or training logic 815 may beincorporated into graphics processor 2810. For example, in at least oneembodiment, training and/or inferencing techniques described herein mayuse one or more of ALUs embodied in a 3D pipeline, graphics core(s)2802, shared function logic, or other logic in FIG. 28. Moreover, in atleast one embodiment, inferencing and/or training operations describedherein may be done using logic other than logic illustrated in FIG. 8Aor 8B. In at least one embodiment, weight parameters may be stored inon-chip or off-chip memory and/or registers (shown or not shown) thatconfigure ALUs of processor 2800 to perform one or more machine learningalgorithms, neural network architectures, use cases, or trainingtechniques described herein.

FIG. 29 is a block diagram of a graphics processor 2900, which may be adiscrete graphics processing unit, or may be a graphics processorintegrated with a plurality of processing cores. In at least oneembodiment, graphics processor 2900 communicates via a memory mapped I/Ointerface to registers on graphics processor 2900 and with commandsplaced into memory. In at least one embodiment, graphics processor 2900includes a memory interface 2914 to access memory. In at least oneembodiment, memory interface 2914 is an interface to local memory, oneor more internal caches, one or more shared external caches, and/or tosystem memory.

In at least one embodiment, graphics processor 2900 also includes adisplay controller 2902 to drive display output data to a display device2920. In at least one embodiment, display controller 2902 includeshardware for one or more overlay planes for display device 2920 andcomposition of multiple layers of video or user interface elements. Inat least one embodiment, display device 2920 can be an internal orexternal display device. In at least one embodiment, display device 2920is a head mounted display device, such as a virtual reality (VR) displaydevice or an augmented reality (AR) display device. In at least oneembodiment, graphics processor 2900 includes a video codec engine 2906to encode, decode, or transcode media to, from, or between one or moremedia encoding formats, including, but not limited to Moving PictureExperts Group (MPEG) formats such as MPEG-2, Advanced Video Coding (AVC)formats such as H.264/MPEG-4 AVC, as well as the Society of MotionPicture & Television Engineers (SMPTE) 421M/VC-1, and Joint PhotographicExperts Group (JPEG) formats such as JPEG, and Motion JPEG (MJPEG)formats.

In at least one embodiment, graphics processor 2900 includes a blockimage transfer (BLIT) engine 2904 to perform two-dimensional (2D)rasterizer operations including, for example, bit-boundary blocktransfers. However, in at least one embodiment, 2D graphics operationsare performed using one or more components of a graphics processingengine (GPE) 2910. In at least one embodiment, GPE 2910 is a computeengine for performing graphics operations, including three-dimensional(3D) graphics operations and media operations.

In at least one embodiment, GPE 2910 includes a 3D pipeline 2912 forperforming 3D operations, such as rendering three-dimensional images andscenes using processing functions that act upon 3D primitive shapes(e.g., rectangle, triangle, etc.). In at least one embodiment, 3Dpipeline 2912 includes programmable and fixed function elements thatperform various tasks and/or spawn execution threads to a 3D/Mediasub-system 2915. While 3D pipeline 2912 can be used to perform mediaoperations, in at least one embodiment, GPE 2910 also includes a mediapipeline 2916 that is used to perform media operations, such as videopost-processing and image enhancement.

In at least one embodiment, media pipeline 2916 includes fixed functionor programmable logic units to perform one or more specialized mediaoperations, such as video decode acceleration, video de-interlacing, andvideo encode acceleration in place of, or on behalf of, video codecengine 2906. In at least one embodiment, media pipeline 2916additionally includes a thread spawning unit to spawn threads forexecution on 3D/Media sub-system 2915. In at least one embodiment,spawned threads perform computations for media operations on one or moregraphics execution units included in 3D/Media sub-system 2915.

In at least one embodiment, 3D/Media subsystem 2915 includes logic forexecuting threads spawned by 3D pipeline 2912 and media pipeline 2916.In at least one embodiment, 3D pipeline 2912 and media pipeline 2916send thread execution requests to 3D/Media subsystem 2915, whichincludes thread dispatch logic for arbitrating and dispatching variousrequests to available thread execution resources. In at least oneembodiment, execution resources include an array of graphics executionunits to process 3D and media threads. In at least one embodiment,3D/Media subsystem 2915 includes one or more internal caches for threadinstructions and data. In at least one embodiment, subsystem 2915 alsoincludes shared memory, including registers and addressable memory, toshare data between threads and to store output data.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment portions or all of inference and/or training logic 815 may beincorporated into graphics processor 2900. For example, in at least oneembodiment, training and/or inferencing techniques described herein mayuse one or more of ALUs embodied in 3D pipeline 2912. Moreover, in atleast one embodiment, inferencing and/or training operations describedherein may be done using logic other than logic illustrated in FIG. 8Aor 8B. In at least one embodiment, weight parameters may be stored inon-chip or off-chip memory and/or registers (shown or not shown) thatconfigure ALUs of graphics processor 2900 to perform one or more machinelearning algorithms, neural network architectures, use cases, ortraining techniques described herein.

FIG. 30 is a block diagram of a graphics processing engine 3010 of agraphics processor in accordance with at least one embodiment. In atleast one embodiment, graphics processing engine (GPE) 3010 is a versionof GPE 2910 shown in FIG. 29. In at least one embodiment, a mediapipeline 3016 is optional and may not be explicitly included within GPE3010. In at least one embodiment, a separate media and/or imageprocessor is coupled to GPE 3010.

In at least one embodiment, GPE 3010 is coupled to or includes a commandstreamer 3003, which provides a command stream to a 3D pipeline 3012and/or media pipeline 3016. In at least one embodiment, command streamer3003 is coupled to memory, which can be system memory, or one or more ofinternal cache memory and shared cache memory. In at least oneembodiment, command streamer 3003 receives commands from memory andsends commands to 3D pipeline 3012 and/or media pipeline 3016. In atleast one embodiment, commands are instructions, primitives, ormicro-operations fetched from a ring buffer, which stores commands for3D pipeline 3012 and media pipeline 3016. In at least one embodiment, aring buffer can additionally include batch command buffers storingbatches of multiple commands. In at least one embodiment, commands for3D pipeline 3012 can also include references to data stored in memory,such as, but not limited to, vertex and geometry data for 3D pipeline3012 and/or image data and memory objects for media pipeline 3016. In atleast one embodiment, 3D pipeline 3012 and media pipeline 3016 processcommands and data by performing operations or by dispatching one or moreexecution threads to a graphics core array 3014. In at least oneembodiment, graphics core array 3014 includes one or more blocks ofgraphics cores (e.g., graphics core(s) 3015A, graphics core(s) 3015B),each block including one or more graphics cores. In at least oneembodiment, each graphics core includes a set of graphics executionresources that includes general-purpose and graphics specific executionlogic to perform graphics and compute operations, as well as fixedfunction texture processing and/or machine learning and artificialintelligence acceleration logic, including inference and/or traininglogic 815 in FIG. 8A and FIG. 8B.

In at least one embodiment, 3D pipeline 3012 includes fixed function andprogrammable logic to process one or more shader programs, such asvertex shaders, geometry shaders, pixel shaders, fragment shaders,compute shaders, or other shader programs, by processing instructionsand dispatching execution threads to graphics core array 3014. In atleast one embodiment, graphics core array 3014 provides a unified blockof execution resources for use in processing shader programs. In atleast one embodiment, a multi-purpose execution logic (e.g., executionunits) within graphics core(s) 3015A-3015B of graphic core array 3014includes support for various 3D API shader languages and can executemultiple simultaneous execution threads associated with multipleshaders.

In at least one embodiment, graphics core array 3014 also includesexecution logic to perform media functions, such as video and/or imageprocessing. In at least one embodiment, execution units additionallyinclude general-purpose logic that is programmable to perform parallelgeneral-purpose computational operations, in addition to graphicsprocessing operations.

In at least one embodiment, output data generated by threads executingon graphics core array 3014 can output data to memory in a unifiedreturn buffer (URB) 3018. In at least one embodiment, URB 3018 can storedata for multiple threads. In at least one embodiment, URB 3018 may beused to send data between different threads executing on graphics corearray 3014. In at least one embodiment, URB 3018 may additionally beused for synchronization between threads on graphics core array 3014 andfixed function logic within shared function logic 3020.

In at least one embodiment, graphics core array 3014 is scalable, suchthat graphics core array 3014 includes a variable number of graphicscores, each having a variable number of execution units based on atarget power and performance level of GPE 3010. In at least oneembodiment, execution resources are dynamically scalable, such thatexecution resources may be enabled or disabled as needed.

In at least one embodiment, graphics core array 3014 is coupled toshared function logic 3020 that includes multiple resources that areshared between graphics cores in graphics core array 3014. In at leastone embodiment, shared functions performed by shared function logic 3020are embodied in hardware logic units that provide specializedsupplemental functionality to graphics core array 3014. In at least oneembodiment, shared function logic 3020 includes but is not limited to asampler unit 3021, a math unit 3022, and inter-thread communication(ITC) logic 3023. In at least one embodiment, one or more cache(s) 3025are included in, or coupled to, shared function logic 3020.

In at least one embodiment, a shared function is used if demand for aspecialized function is insufficient for inclusion within graphics corearray 3014. In at least one embodiment, a single instantiation of aspecialized function is used in shared function logic 3020 and sharedamong other execution resources within graphics core array 3014. In atleast one embodiment, specific shared functions within shared functionlogic 3020 that are used extensively by graphics core array 3014 may beincluded within shared function logic 3316 within graphics core array3014. In at least one embodiment, shared function logic 3316 withingraphics core array 3014 can include some or all logic within sharedfunction logic 3020. In at least one embodiment, all logic elementswithin shared function logic 3020 may be duplicated within sharedfunction logic 3026 of graphics core array 3014. In at least oneembodiment, shared function logic 3020 is excluded in favor of sharedfunction logic 3026 within graphics core array 3014.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment portions or all of inference and/or training logic 815 may beincorporated into graphics processor 3010. For example, in at least oneembodiment, training and/or inferencing techniques described herein mayuse one or more of ALUs embodied in 3D pipeline 3012, graphics core(s)3015, shared function logic 3026, shared function logic 3020, or otherlogic in FIG. 30. Moreover, in at least one embodiment, inferencingand/or training operations described herein may be done using logicother than logic illustrated in FIG. 8A or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, weight parameters may be stored in on-chip or off-chipmemory and/or registers (shown or not shown) that configure ALUs ofgraphics processor 3010 to perform one or more machine learningalgorithms, neural network architectures, use cases, or trainingtechniques described herein.

FIG. 31 is a block diagram of hardware logic of a graphics processorcore 3100, according to at least one embodiment described herein. In atleast one embodiment, graphics processor core 3100 is included within agraphics core array. In at least one embodiment, graphics processor core3100, sometimes referred to as a core slice, can be one or multiplegraphics cores within a modular graphics processor. In at least oneembodiment, graphics processor core 3100 is exemplary of one graphicscore slice, and a graphics processor as described herein may includemultiple graphics core slices based on target power and performanceenvelopes. In at least one embodiment, each graphics core 3100 caninclude a fixed function block 3130 coupled with multiple sub-cores3101A-3101F, also referred to as sub-slices, that include modular blocksof general-purpose and fixed function logic.

In at least one embodiment, fixed function block 3130 includes ageometry and fixed function pipeline 3136 that can be shared by allsub-cores in graphics processor 3100, for example, in lower performanceand/or lower power graphics processor implementations. In at least oneembodiment, geometry and fixed function pipeline 3136 includes a 3Dfixed function pipeline, a video front-end unit, a thread spawner andthread dispatcher, and a unified return buffer manager, which managesunified return buffers.

In at least one embodiment, fixed function block 3130 also includes agraphics SoC interface 3137, a graphics microcontroller 3138, and amedia pipeline 3139. In at least one embodiment, graphics SoC interface3137 provides an interface between graphics core 3100 and otherprocessor cores within a system on a chip integrated circuit. In atleast one embodiment, graphics microcontroller 3138 is a programmablesub-processor that is configurable to manage various functions ofgraphics processor 3100, including thread dispatch, scheduling, andpre-emption. In at least one embodiment, media pipeline 3139 includeslogic to facilitate decoding, encoding, pre-processing, and/orpost-processing of multimedia data, including image and video data. Inat least one embodiment, media pipeline 3139 implements media operationsvia requests to compute or sampling logic within sub-cores 3101A-3101F.

In at least one embodiment, SoC interface 3137 enables graphics core3100 to communicate with general-purpose application processor cores(e.g., CPUs) and/or other components within an SoC, including memoryhierarchy elements such as a shared last level cache memory, system RAM,and/or embedded on-chip or on-package DRAM. In at least one embodiment,SoC interface 3137 can also enable communication with fixed functiondevices within an SoC, such as camera imaging pipelines, and enables useof and/or implements global memory atomics that may be shared betweengraphics core 3100 and CPUs within an SoC. In at least one embodiment,graphics SoC interface 3137 can also implement power management controlsfor graphics processor core 3100 and enable an interface between a clockdomain of graphics processor core 3100 and other clock domains within anSoC. In at least one embodiment, SoC interface 3137 enables receipt ofcommand buffers from a command streamer and global thread dispatcherthat are configured to provide commands and instructions to each of oneor more graphics cores within a graphics processor. In at least oneembodiment, commands and instructions can be dispatched to mediapipeline 3139, when media operations are to be performed, or a geometryand fixed function pipeline (e.g., geometry and fixed function pipeline3136, and/or a geometry and fixed function pipeline 3114) when graphicsprocessing operations are to be performed.

In at least one embodiment, graphics microcontroller 3138 can beconfigured to perform various scheduling and management tasks forgraphics core 3100. In at least one embodiment, graphics microcontroller3138 can perform graphics and/or compute workload scheduling on variousgraphics parallel engines within execution unit (EU) arrays 3102A-3102F,3104A-3104F within sub-cores 3101A-3101F. In at least one embodiment,host software executing on a CPU core of an SoC including graphics core3100 can submit workloads to one of multiple graphic processor paths,which invokes a scheduling operation on an appropriate graphics engine.In at least one embodiment, scheduling operations include determiningwhich workload to run next, submitting a workload to a command streamer,pre-empting existing workloads running on an engine, monitoring progressof a workload, and notifying host software when a workload is complete.In at least one embodiment, graphics microcontroller 3138 can alsofacilitate low-power or idle states for graphics core 3100, providinggraphics core 3100 with an ability to save and restore registers withingraphics core 3100 across low-power state transitions independently froman operating system and/or graphics driver software on a system.

In at least one embodiment, graphics core 3100 may have greater than orfewer than illustrated sub-cores 3101A-3101F, up to N modular sub-cores.For each set of N sub-cores, in at least one embodiment, graphics core3100 can also include shared function logic 3110, shared and/or cachememory 3112, geometry/fixed function pipeline 3114, as well asadditional fixed function logic 3116 to accelerate various graphics andcompute processing operations. In at least one embodiment, sharedfunction logic 3110 can include logic units (e.g., sampler, math, and/orinter-thread communication logic) that can be shared by each N sub-coreswithin graphics core 3100. In at least one embodiment, shared and/orcache memory 3112 can be a last-level cache for N sub-cores 3101A-3101Fwithin graphics core 3100 and can also serve as shared memory that isaccessible by multiple sub-cores. In at least one embodiment,geometry/fixed function pipeline 3114 can be included instead ofgeometry/fixed function pipeline 3136 within fixed function block 3130and can include similar logic units.

In at least one embodiment, graphics core 3100 includes additional fixedfunction logic 3116 that can include various fixed function accelerationlogic for use by graphics core 3100. In at least one embodiment,additional fixed function logic 3116 includes an additional geometrypipeline for use in position-only shading. In position-only shading, atleast two geometry pipelines exist, whereas in a full geometry pipelinewithin geometry and fixed function pipelines 3114, 3136, and a cullpipeline, which is an additional geometry pipeline that may be includedwithin additional fixed function logic 3116. In at least one embodiment,a cull pipeline is a trimmed down version of a full geometry pipeline.In at least one embodiment, a full pipeline and a cull pipeline canexecute different instances of an application, each instance having aseparate context. In at least one embodiment, position only shading canhide long cull runs of discarded triangles, enabling shading to becompleted earlier in some instances. For example, in at least oneembodiment, cull pipeline logic within additional fixed function logic3116 can execute position shaders in parallel with a main applicationand generally generates critical results faster than a full pipeline, asa cull pipeline fetches and shades position attributes of vertices,without performing rasterization and rendering of pixels to a framebuffer. In at least one embodiment, a cull pipeline can use generatedcritical results to compute visibility information for all triangleswithout regard to whether those triangles are culled. In at least oneembodiment, a full pipeline (which in this instance may be referred toas a replay pipeline) can consume visibility information to skip culledtriangles to shade only visible triangles that are finally passed to arasterization phase.

In at least one embodiment, additional fixed function logic 3116 canalso include machine-learning acceleration logic, such as fixed functionmatrix multiplication logic, for implementations including optimizationsfor machine learning training or inferencing.

In at least one embodiment, within each graphics sub-core 3101A-3101Fincludes a set of execution resources that may be used to performgraphics, media, and compute operations in response to requests bygraphics pipeline, media pipeline, or shader programs. In at least oneembodiment, graphics sub-cores 3101A-3101F include multiple EU arrays3102A-3102F, 3104A-3104F, thread dispatch and inter-thread communication(TD/IC) logic 3103A-3103F, a 3D (e.g., texture) sampler 3105A-3105F, amedia sampler 3106A-3106F, a shader processor 3107A-3107F, and sharedlocal memory (SLM) 3108A-3108F. In at least one embodiment, EU arrays3102A-3102F, 3104A-3104F each include multiple execution units, whichare general-purpose graphics processing units capable of performingfloating-point and integer/fixed-point logic operations in service of agraphics, media, or compute operation, including graphics, media, orcompute shader programs. In at least one embodiment, TD/IC logic3103A-3103F performs local thread dispatch and thread control operationsfor execution units within a sub-core and facilitates communicationbetween threads executing on execution units of a sub-core. In at leastone embodiment, 3D samplers 3105A-3105F can read texture or other 3Dgraphics related data into memory. In at least one embodiment, 3Dsamplers can read texture data differently based on a configured samplestate and texture format associated with a given texture. In at leastone embodiment, media samplers 3106A-3106F can perform similar readoperations based on a type and format associated with media data. In atleast one embodiment, each graphics sub-core 3101A-3101F can alternatelyinclude a unified 3D and media sampler. In at least one embodiment,threads executing on execution units within each of sub-cores3101A-3101F can make use of shared local memory 3108A-3108F within eachsub-core, to enable threads executing within a thread group to executeusing a common pool of on-chip memory.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, portions or all of inference and/or training logic 815 maybe incorporated into graphics processor 3110. For example, in at leastone embodiment, training and/or inferencing techniques described hereinmay use one or more of ALUs embodied in a 3D pipeline, graphicsmicrocontroller 3138, geometry and fixed function pipeline 3114 and3136, or other logic in FIG. 31. Moreover, in at least one embodiment,inferencing and/or training operations described herein may be doneusing logic other than logic illustrated in FIG. 8A or 8B. In at leastone embodiment, weight parameters may be stored in on-chip or off-chipmemory and/or registers (shown or not shown) that configure ALUs ofgraphics processor 3100 to perform one or more machine learningalgorithms, neural network architectures, use cases, or trainingtechniques described herein.

FIGS. 32A-32B illustrate thread execution logic 3200 including an arrayof processing elements of a graphics processor core according to atleast one embodiment. FIG. 32A illustrates at least one embodiment, inwhich thread execution logic 3200 is used. FIG. 32B illustratesexemplary internal details of a graphics execution unit 3208, accordingto at least one embodiment.

As illustrated in FIG. 32A, in at least one embodiment, thread executionlogic 3200 includes a shader processor 3202, a thread dispatcher 3204,an instruction cache 3206, a scalable execution unit array including aplurality of execution units 3207A-3207N and 3208A-3208N, a sampler3210, a data cache 3212, and a data port 3214. In at least oneembodiment, a scalable execution unit array can dynamically scale byenabling or disabling one or more execution units (e.g., any ofexecution unit 3208A-N or 3207A-N) based on computational requirementsof a workload, for example. In at least one embodiment, scalableexecution units are interconnected via an interconnect fabric that linksto each execution unit. In at least one embodiment, thread executionlogic 3200 includes one or more connections to memory, such as systemmemory or cache memory, through one or more of instruction cache 3206,data port 3214, sampler 3210, and execution units 3207 or 3208. In atleast one embodiment, each execution unit (e.g., 3207A) is a stand-aloneprogrammable general-purpose computational unit that is capable ofexecuting multiple simultaneous hardware threads while processingmultiple data elements in parallel for each thread. In at least oneembodiment, array of execution units 3207 and/or 3208 is scalable toinclude any number individual execution units.

In at least one embodiment, execution units 3207 and/or 3208 areprimarily used to execute shader programs. In at least one embodiment,shader processor 3202 can process various shader programs and dispatchexecution threads associated with shader programs via a threaddispatcher 3204. In at least one embodiment, thread dispatcher 3204includes logic to arbitrate thread initiation requests from graphics andmedia pipelines and instantiate requested threads on one or moreexecution units in execution units 3207 and/or 3208. For example, in atleast one embodiment, a geometry pipeline can dispatch vertex,tessellation, or geometry shaders to thread execution logic forprocessing. In at least one embodiment, thread dispatcher 3204 can alsoprocess runtime thread spawning requests from executing shader programs.

In at least one embodiment, execution units 3207 and/or 3208 support aninstruction set that includes native support for many standard 3Dgraphics shader instructions, such that shader programs from graphicslibraries (e.g., Direct 3D and OpenGL) are executed with a minimaltranslation. In at least one embodiment, execution units support vertexand geometry processing (e.g., vertex programs, geometry programs,and/or vertex shaders), pixel processing (e.g., pixel shaders, fragmentshaders) and general-purpose processing (e.g., compute and mediashaders). In at least one embodiment, each of execution units 3207and/or 3208, which include one or more arithmetic logic units (ALUs), iscapable of multi-issue single instruction multiple data (SIMD) executionand multi-threaded operation enables an efficient execution environmentdespite higher latency memory accesses. In at least one embodiment, eachhardware thread within each execution unit has a dedicatedhigh-bandwidth register file and associated independent thread-state. Inat least one embodiment, execution is multi-issue per clock to pipelinescapable of integer, single and double precision floating pointoperations, SIMD branch capability, logical operations, transcendentaloperations, and other miscellaneous operations. In at least oneembodiment, while waiting for data from memory or one of sharedfunctions, dependency logic within execution units 3207 and/or 3208causes a waiting thread to sleep until requested data has been returned.In at least one embodiment, while an awaiting thread is sleeping,hardware resources may be devoted to processing other threads. Forexample, in at least one embodiment, during a delay associated with avertex shader operation, an execution unit can perform operations for apixel shader, fragment shader, or another type of shader program,including a different vertex shader.

In at least one embodiment, each execution unit in execution units 3207and/or 3208 operates on arrays of data elements. In at least oneembodiment, a number of data elements is an “execution size,” or numberof channels for an instruction. In at least one embodiment, an executionchannel is a logical unit of execution for data element access, masking,and flow control within instructions. In at least one embodiment, anumber of channels may be independent of a number of physical arithmeticlogic units (ALUs) or floating point units (FPUs) for a particulargraphics processor. In at least one embodiment, execution units 3207and/or 3208 support integer and floating-point data types.

In at least one embodiment, an execution unit instruction set includesSIMD instructions. In at least one embodiment, various data elements canbe stored as a packed data type in a register and execution unit willprocess various elements based on data size of elements. For example, inat least one embodiment, when operating on a 256-bit wide vector, 256bits of a vector are stored in a register and an execution unit operateson a vector as four separate 64-bit packed data elements (Quad-Word (QW)size data elements), eight separate 32-bit packed data elements (DoubleWord (DW) size data elements), sixteen separate 16-bit packed dataelements (Word (W) size data elements), or thirty-two separate 8-bitdata elements (byte (B) size data elements). However, in at least oneembodiment, different vector widths and register sizes are possible.

In at least one embodiment, one or more execution units can be combinedinto a fused execution unit 3209A-3209N having thread control logic(3211A-3211N) that is common to fused EUs such as execution unit 3207Afused with execution unit 3208A into fused execution unit 3209A. In atleast one embodiment, multiple EUs can be fused into an EU group. In atleast one embodiment, each EU in a fused EU group can be configured toexecute a separate SIMD hardware thread, with a number of EUs in a fusedEU group possibly varying according to various embodiments. In at leastone embodiment, various SIMD widths can be performed per-EU, includingbut not limited to SIMD8, SIMD16, and SIMD32. In at least oneembodiment, each fused graphics execution unit 3209A-3209N includes atleast two execution units. For example, in at least one embodiment,fused execution unit 3209A includes a first EU 3207A, second EU 3208A,and thread control logic 3211A that is common to first EU 3207A andsecond EU 3208A. In at least one embodiment, thread control logic 3211Acontrols threads executed on fused graphics execution unit 3209A,allowing each EU within fused execution units 3209A-3209N to executeusing a common instruction pointer register.

In at least one embodiment, one or more internal instruction caches(e.g., 3206) are included in thread execution logic 3200 to cache threadinstructions for execution units. In at least one embodiment, one ormore data caches (e.g., 3212) are included to cache thread data duringthread execution. In at least one embodiment, sampler 3210 is includedto provide texture sampling for 3D operations and media sampling formedia operations. In at least one embodiment, sampler 3210 includesspecialized texture or media sampling functionality to process textureor media data during sampling process before providing sampled data toan execution unit.

During execution, in at least one embodiment, graphics and mediapipelines send thread initiation requests to thread execution logic 3200via thread spawning and dispatch logic. In at least one embodiment, oncea group of geometric objects has been processed and rasterized intopixel data, pixel processor logic (e.g., pixel shader logic, fragmentshader logic, etc.) within shader processor 3202 is invoked to furthercompute output information and cause results to be written to outputsurfaces (e.g., color buffers, depth buffers, stencil buffers, etc.). Inat least one embodiment, a pixel shader or a fragment shader calculatesvalues of various vertex attributes that are to be interpolated across arasterized object. In at least one embodiment, pixel processor logicwithin shader processor 3202 then executes an application programminginterface (API)-supplied pixel or fragment shader program. In at leastone embodiment, to execute a shader program, shader processor 3202dispatches threads to an execution unit (e.g., 3208A) via threaddispatcher 3204. In at least one embodiment, shader processor 3202 usestexture sampling logic in sampler 3210 to access texture data in texturemaps stored in memory. In at least one embodiment, arithmetic operationson texture data and input geometry data compute pixel color data foreach geometric fragment, or discards one or more pixels from furtherprocessing.

In at least one embodiment, data port 3214 provides a memory accessmechanism for thread execution logic 3200 to output processed data tomemory for further processing on a graphics processor output pipeline.In at least one embodiment, data port 3214 includes or couples to one ormore cache memories (e.g., data cache 3212) to cache data for memoryaccess via a data port.

As illustrated in FIG. 32B, in at least one embodiment, a graphicsexecution unit 3208 can include an instruction fetch unit 3237, ageneral register file array (GRF) 3224, an architectural register filearray (ARF) 3226, a thread arbiter 3222, a send unit 3230, a branch unit3232, a set of SIMD floating point units (FPUs) 3234, and a set ofdedicated integer SIMD ALUs 3235. In at least one embodiment, GRF 3224and ARF 3226 includes a set of general register files and architectureregister files associated with each simultaneous hardware thread thatmay be active in graphics execution unit 3208. In at least oneembodiment, per thread architectural state is maintained in ARF 3226,while data used during thread execution is stored in GRF 3224. In atleast one embodiment, execution state of each thread, includinginstruction pointers for each thread, can be held in thread-specificregisters in ARF 3226.

In at least one embodiment, graphics execution unit 3208 has anarchitecture that is a combination of Simultaneous Multi-Threading (SMT)and fine-grained Interleaved Multi-Threading (IMT). In at least oneembodiment, architecture has a modular configuration that can befine-tuned at design time based on a target number of simultaneousthreads and number of registers per execution unit, where execution unitresources are divided across logic used to execute multiple simultaneousthreads.

In at least one embodiment, graphics execution unit 3208 can co-issuemultiple instructions, which may each be different instructions. In atleast one embodiment, thread arbiter 3222 of graphics execution unitthread 3208 can dispatch instructions to one of send unit 3230, branchunit 3232, or SIMD FPU(s) 3234 for execution. In at least oneembodiment, each execution thread can access 128 general-purposeregisters within GRF 3224, where each register can store 32 bytes,accessible as a SIMD 8-element vector of 32-bit data elements. In atleast one embodiment, each execution unit thread has access to 4kilobytes within GRF 3224, although embodiments are not so limited, andgreater or fewer register resources may be provided in otherembodiments. In at least one embodiment, up to seven threads can executesimultaneously, although a number of threads per execution unit can alsovary according to embodiments. In at least one embodiment, in whichseven threads may access 4 kilobytes, GRF 3224 can store a total of 28kilobytes. In at least one embodiment, flexible addressing modes canpermit registers to be addressed together to build effectively widerregisters or to represent strided rectangular block data structures.

In at least one embodiment, memory operations, sampler operations, andother longer-latency system communications are dispatched via “send”instructions that are executed by message passing to send unit 3230. Inat least one embodiment, branch instructions are dispatched to branchunit 3232 to facilitate SIMD divergence and eventual convergence.

In at least one embodiment, graphics execution unit 3208 includes one ormore SIMD floating point units (FPU(s)) 3234 to perform floating-pointoperations. In at least one embodiment, FPU(s) 3234 also support integercomputation. In at least one embodiment, FPU(s) 3234 can SIMD execute upto M number of 32-bit floating-point (or integer) operations, or SIMDexecute up to 2M 16-bit integer or 16-bit floating-point operations. Inat least one embodiment, at least one FPU provides extended mathcapability to support high-throughput transcendental math functions anddouble precision 64-bit floating-point. In at least one embodiment, aset of 8-bit integer SIMD ALUs 3235 are also present, and may bespecifically optimized to perform operations associated with machinelearning computations.

In at least one embodiment, arrays of multiple instances of graphicsexecution unit 3208 can be instantiated in a graphics sub-core grouping(e.g., a sub-slice). In at least one embodiment, execution unit 3208 canexecute instructions across a plurality of execution channels. In atleast one embodiment, each thread executed on graphics execution unit3208 is executed on a different channel.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, portions or all of inference and/or training logic 815 maybe incorporated into thread execution logic 3200. Moreover, in at leastone embodiment, inferencing and/or training operations described hereinmay be done using logic other than logic illustrated in FIG. 8A or 8B.In at least one embodiment, weight parameters may be stored in on-chipor off-chip memory and/or registers (shown or not shown) that configureALUs thread of execution logic 3200 to perform one or more machinelearning algorithms, neural network architectures, use cases, ortraining techniques described herein.

FIG. 33 illustrates a parallel processing unit (“PPU”) 3300, accordingto at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, PPU 3300 isconfigured with machine-readable code that, if executed by PPU 3300,causes PPU 3300 to perform some or all of processes and techniquesdescribed throughout this disclosure. In at least one embodiment, PPU3300 is a multi-threaded processor that is implemented on one or moreintegrated circuit devices and that utilizes multithreading as alatency-hiding technique designed to process computer-readableinstructions (also referred to as machine-readable instructions orsimply instructions) on multiple threads in parallel. In at least oneembodiment, a thread refers to a thread of execution and is aninstantiation of a set of instructions configured to be executed by PPU3300. In at least one embodiment, PPU 3300 is a graphics processing unit(“GPU”) configured to implement a graphics rendering pipeline forprocessing three-dimensional (“3D”) graphics data in order to generatetwo-dimensional (“2D”) image data for display on a display device suchas a liquid crystal display (“LCD”) device. In at least one embodiment,PPU 3300 is utilized to perform computations such as linear algebraoperations and machine-learning operations. FIG. 33 illustrates anexample parallel processor for illustrative purposes only and should beconstrued as a non-limiting example of processor architecturescontemplated within scope of this disclosure and that any suitableprocessor may be employed to supplement and/or substitute for same.

In at least one embodiment, one or more PPUs 3300 are configured toaccelerate High Performance Computing (“HPC”), data center, and machinelearning applications. In at least one embodiment, PPU 3300 isconfigured to accelerate deep learning systems and applicationsincluding following non-limiting examples: autonomous vehicle platforms,deep learning, high-accuracy speech, image, text recognition systems,intelligent video analytics, molecular simulations, drug discovery,disease diagnosis, weather forecasting, big data analytics, astronomy,molecular dynamics simulation, financial modeling, robotics, factoryautomation, real-time language translation, online search optimizations,and personalized user recommendations, and more.

In at least one embodiment, PPU 3300 includes, without limitation, anInput/Output (“I/O”) unit 3306, a front-end unit 3310, a scheduler unit3312, a work distribution unit 3314, a hub 3316, a crossbar (“XBar”)3320, one or more general processing clusters (“GPCs”) 3318, and one ormore partition units (“memory partition units”) 3322. In at least oneembodiment, PPU 3300 is connected to a host processor or other PPUs 3300via one or more high-speed GPU interconnects (“GPU interconnects”) 3308.In at least one embodiment, PPU 3300 is connected to a host processor orother peripheral devices via a system bus 3302. In at least oneembodiment, PPU 3300 is connected to a local memory comprising one ormore memory devices (“memory”) 3304. In at least one embodiment, memorydevices 3304 include, without limitation, one or more dynamic randomaccess memory (“DRAM”) devices. In at least one embodiment, one or moreDRAM devices are configured and/or configurable as high-bandwidth memory(“HBM”) subsystems, with multiple DRAM dies stacked within each device.

In at least one embodiment, high-speed GPU interconnect 3308 may referto a wire-based multi-lane communications link that is used by systemsto scale and include one or more PPUs 3300 combined with one or morecentral processing units (“CPUs”), supports cache coherence between PPUs3300 and CPUs, and CPU mastering. In at least one embodiment, dataand/or commands are transmitted by high-speed GPU interconnect 3308through hub 3316 to/from other units of PPU 3300 such as one or morecopy engines, video encoders, video decoders, power management units,and other components which may not be explicitly illustrated in FIG. 33.

In at least one embodiment, I/O unit 3306 is configured to transmit andreceive communications (e.g., commands, data) from a host processor (notillustrated in FIG. 33) over system bus 3302. In at least oneembodiment, I/O unit 3306 communicates with host processor directly viasystem bus 3302 or through one or more intermediate devices such as amemory bridge. In at least one embodiment, I/O unit 3306 may communicatewith one or more other processors, such as one or more of PPUs 3300 viasystem bus 3302. In at least one embodiment, I/O unit 3306 implements aPeripheral Component Interconnect Express (“PCIe”) interface forcommunications over a PCIe bus. In at least one embodiment, I/O unit3306 implements interfaces for communicating with external devices.

In at least one embodiment, I/O unit 3306 decodes packets received viasystem bus 3302. In at least one embodiment, at least some packetsrepresent commands configured to cause PPU 3300 to perform variousoperations. In at least one embodiment, I/O unit 3306 transmits decodedcommands to various other units of PPU 3300 as specified by commands. Inat least one embodiment, commands are transmitted to front-end unit 3310and/or transmitted to hub 3316 or other units of PPU 3300 such as one ormore copy engines, a video encoder, a video decoder, a power managementunit, etc. (not explicitly illustrated in FIG. 33). In at least oneembodiment, I/O unit 3306 is configured to route communications betweenand among various logical units of PPU 3300.

In at least one embodiment, a program executed by host processor encodesa command stream in a buffer that provides workloads to PPU 3300 forprocessing. In at least one embodiment, a workload comprisesinstructions and data to be processed by those instructions. In at leastone embodiment, a buffer is a region in a memory that is accessible(e.g., read/write) by both a host processor and PPU 3300—a hostinterface unit may be configured to access that buffer in a systemmemory connected to system bus 3302 via memory requests transmitted oversystem bus 3302 by I/O unit 3306. In at least one embodiment, a hostprocessor writes a command stream to a buffer and then transmits apointer to a start of a command stream to PPU 3300 such that front-endunit 3310 receives pointers to one or more command streams and managesone or more command streams, reading commands from command streams andforwarding commands to various units of PPU 3300.

In at least one embodiment, front-end unit 3310 is coupled to schedulerunit 3312 that configures various GPCs 3318 to process tasks defined byone or more command streams. In at least one embodiment, scheduler unit3312 is configured to track state information related to various tasksmanaged by scheduler unit 3312 where state information may indicatewhich of GPCs 3318 a task is assigned to, whether task is active orinactive, a priority level associated with task, and so forth. In atleast one embodiment, scheduler unit 3312 manages execution of aplurality of tasks on one or more of GPCs 3318.

In at least one embodiment, scheduler unit 3312 is coupled to workdistribution unit 3314 that is configured to dispatch tasks forexecution on GPCs 3318. In at least one embodiment, work distributionunit 3314 tracks a number of scheduled tasks received from schedulerunit 3312 and work distribution unit 3314 manages a pending task pooland an active task pool for each of GPCs 3318. In at least oneembodiment, pending task pool comprises a number of slots (e.g., 32slots) that contain tasks assigned to be processed by a particular GPC3318; an active task pool may comprise a number of slots (e.g., 4 slots)for tasks that are actively being processed by GPCs 3318 such that asone of GPCs 3318 completes execution of a task, that task is evictedfrom that active task pool for GPC 3318 and another task from a pendingtask pool is selected and scheduled for execution on GPC 3318. In atleast one embodiment, if an active task is idle on GPC 3318, such aswhile waiting for a data dependency to be resolved, then that activetask is evicted from GPC 3318 and returned to that pending task poolwhile another task in that pending task pool is selected and scheduledfor execution on GPC 3318.

In at least one embodiment, work distribution unit 3314 communicateswith one or more GPCs 3318 via XBar 3320. In at least one embodiment,XBar 3320 is an interconnect network that couples many of units of PPU3300 to other units of PPU 3300 and can be configured to couple workdistribution unit 3314 to a particular GPC 3318. In at least oneembodiment, one or more other units of PPU 3300 may also be connected toXBar 3320 via hub 3316.

In at least one embodiment, tasks are managed by scheduler unit 3312 anddispatched to one of GPCs 3318 by work distribution unit 3314. In atleast one embodiment, GPC 3318 is configured to process task andgenerate results. In at least one embodiment, results may be consumed byother tasks within GPC 3318, routed to a different GPC 3318 via XBar3320, or stored in memory 3304. In at least one embodiment, results canbe written to memory 3304 via partition units 3322, which implement amemory interface for reading and writing data to/from memory 3304. In atleast one embodiment, results can be transmitted to another PPU 3304 orCPU via high-speed GPU interconnect 3308. In at least one embodiment,PPU 3300 includes, without limitation, a number U of partition units3322 that is equal to a number of separate and distinct memory devices3304 coupled to PPU 3300, as described in more detail herein inconjunction with FIG. 35.

In at least one embodiment, a host processor executes a driver kernelthat implements an application programming interface (“API”) thatenables one or more applications executing on a host processor toschedule operations for execution on PPU 3300. In at least oneembodiment, multiple compute applications are simultaneously executed byPPU 3300 and PPU 3300 provides isolation, quality of service (“QoS”),and independent address spaces for multiple compute applications. In atleast one embodiment, an application generates instructions (e.g., inform of API calls) that cause a driver kernel to generate one or moretasks for execution by PPU 3300 and that driver kernel outputs tasks toone or more streams being processed by PPU 3300. In at least oneembodiment, each task comprises one or more groups of related threads,which may be referred to as a warp. In at least one embodiment, a warpcomprises a plurality of related threads (e.g., 32 threads) that can beexecuted in parallel. In at least one embodiment, cooperating threadscan refer to a plurality of threads including instructions to performtask and that exchange data through shared memory. In at least oneembodiment, threads and cooperating threads are described in more detailin conjunction with FIG. 35.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, deep learning application processor is used to train amachine learning model, such as a neural network, to predict or inferinformation provided to PPU 3300. In at least one embodiment, deeplearning application processor 3300 is used to infer or predictinformation based on a trained machine learning model (e.g., neuralnetwork) that has been trained by another processor or system or by PPU3300. In at least one embodiment, PPU 3300 may be used to perform one ormore neural network use cases described herein.

FIG. 34 illustrates a general processing cluster (“GPC”) 3400, accordingto at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, GPC 3400 is GPC3318 of FIG. 33. In at least one embodiment, each GPC 3400 includes,without limitation, a number of hardware units for processing tasks andeach GPC 3400 includes, without limitation, a pipeline manager 3402, apre-raster operations unit (“preROP”) 3404, a raster engine 3408, a workdistribution crossbar (“WDX”) 3416, a memory management unit (“MMU”)3418, one or more Data Processing Clusters (“DPCs”) 3406, and anysuitable combination of parts.

In at least one embodiment, operation of GPC 3400 is controlled bypipeline manager 3402. In at least one embodiment, pipeline manager 3402manages configuration of one or more DPCs 3406 for processing tasksallocated to GPC 3400. In at least one embodiment, pipeline manager 3402configures at least one of one or more DPCs 3406 to implement at least aportion of a graphics rendering pipeline. In at least one embodiment,DPC 3406 is configured to execute a vertex shader program on aprogrammable streaming multi-processor (“SM”) 3414. In at least oneembodiment, pipeline manager 3402 is configured to route packetsreceived from a work distribution unit to appropriate logical unitswithin GPC 3400, in at least one embodiment, and some packets may berouted to fixed function hardware units in preROP 3404 and/or rasterengine 3408 while other packets may be routed to DPCs 3406 forprocessing by a primitive engine 3412 or SM 3414. In at least oneembodiment, pipeline manager 3402 configures at least one of DPCs 3406to implement a neural network model and/or a computing pipeline.

In at least one embodiment, preROP unit 3404 is configured, in at leastone embodiment, to route data generated by raster engine 3408 and DPCs3406 to a Raster Operations (“ROP”) unit in partition unit 3322,described in more detail above in conjunction with FIG. 33. In at leastone embodiment, preROP unit 3404 is configured to perform optimizationsfor color blending, organize pixel data, perform address translations,and more. In at least one embodiment, raster engine 3408 includes,without limitation, a number of fixed function hardware units configuredto perform various raster operations, in at least one embodiment, andraster engine 3408 includes, without limitation, a setup engine, acoarse raster engine, a culling engine, a clipping engine, a fine rasterengine, a tile coalescing engine, and any suitable combination thereof.In at least one embodiment, setup engine receives transformed verticesand generates plane equations associated with geometric primitivedefined by vertices; plane equations are transmitted to a coarse rasterengine to generate coverage information (e.g., an x, y coverage mask fora tile) for primitive; output of a coarse raster engine is transmittedto a culling engine where fragments associated with a primitive thatfail a z-test are culled, and transmitted to a clipping engine wherefragments lying outside a viewing frustum are clipped. In at least oneembodiment, fragments that survive clipping and culling are passed to afine raster engine to generate attributes for pixel fragments based onplane equations generated by a setup engine. In at least one embodiment,an output of raster engine 3408 comprises fragments to be processed byany suitable entity, such as by a fragment shader implemented within DPC3406.

In at least one embodiment, each DPC 3406 included in GPC 3400comprises, without limitation, an M-Pipe Controller (“MPC”) 3410;primitive engine 3412; one or more SMs 3414; and any suitablecombination thereof. In at least one embodiment, MPC 3410 controlsoperation of DPC 3406, routing packets received from pipeline manager3402 to appropriate units in DPC 3406. In at least one embodiment,packets associated with a vertex are routed to primitive engine 3412,which is configured to fetch vertex attributes associated with a vertexfrom memory; in contrast, packets associated with a shader program maybe transmitted to SM 3414.

In at least one embodiment, SM 3414 comprises, without limitation, aprogrammable streaming processor that is configured to process tasksrepresented by a number of threads. In at least one embodiment, SM 3414is multi-threaded and configured to execute a plurality of threads(e.g., 32 threads) from a particular group of threads concurrently andimplements a Single-Instruction, Multiple-Data (“SIMD”) architecturewhere each thread in a group of threads (e.g., a warp) is configured toprocess a different set of data based on same set of instructions. In atleast one embodiment, all threads in group of threads execute a commonset of instructions. In at least one embodiment, SM 3414 implements aSingle-Instruction, Multiple Thread (“SIMT”) architecture wherein eachthread in a group of threads is configured to process a different set ofdata based on that common set of instructions, but where individualthreads in a group of threads are allowed to diverge during execution.In at least one embodiment, a program counter, call stack, and executionstate is maintained for each warp, enabling concurrency between warpsand serial execution within warps when threads within a warp diverge. Inanother embodiment, a program counter, call stack, and execution stateis maintained for each individual thread, enabling equal concurrencybetween all threads, within and between warps. In at least oneembodiment, execution state is maintained for each individual thread andthreads executing common instructions may be converged and executed inparallel for better efficiency. At least one embodiment of SM 3414 isdescribed in more detail herein.

In at least one embodiment, MMU 3418 provides an interface between GPC3400 and a memory partition unit (e.g., partition unit 3322 of FIG. 33)and MMU 3418 provides translation of virtual addresses into physicaladdresses, memory protection, and arbitration of memory requests. In atleast one embodiment, MMU 3418 provides one or more translationlookaside buffers (“TLBs”) for performing translation of virtualaddresses into physical addresses in memory.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, deep learning application processor is used to train amachine learning model, such as a neural network, to predict or inferinformation provided to GPC 3400. In at least one embodiment, GPC 3400is used to infer or predict information based on a trained machinelearning model (e.g., neural network) that has been trained by anotherprocessor or system or by GPC 3400. In at least one embodiment, GPC 3400may be used to perform one or more neural network use cases describedherein.

FIG. 35 illustrates a memory partition unit 3500 of a parallelprocessing unit (“PPU”), in accordance with at least one embodiment. Inat least one embodiment, memory partition unit 3500 includes, withoutlimitation, a Raster Operations (“ROP”) unit 3502, a level two (“L2”)cache 3504, a memory interface 3506, and any suitable combinationthereof. In at least one embodiment, memory interface 3506 is coupled tomemory. In at least one embodiment, memory interface 3506 may implement32, 64, 128, 1024-bit data buses, or like, for high-speed data transfer.In at least one embodiment, PPU incorporates U memory interfaces 3506where U is a positive integer, with one memory interface 3506 per pairof partition units 3500, where each pair of partition units 3500 isconnected to a corresponding memory device. For example, in at least oneembodiment, PPU may be connected to up to Y memory devices, such as highbandwidth memory stacks or graphics double-data-rate, version 5,synchronous dynamic random access memory (“GDDR5 SDRAM”).

In at least one embodiment, memory interface 3506 implements a highbandwidth memory second generation (“HBM2”) memory interface and Yequals half of U. In at least one embodiment, HBM2 memory stacks arelocated on a physical package with a PPU, providing substantial powerand area savings compared with conventional GDDR5 SDRAM systems. In atleast one embodiment, each HBM2 stack includes, without limitation, fourmemory dies with Y=4, with each HBM2 stack including two 128-bitchannels per die for a total of 8 channels and a data bus width of 1024bits. In at least one embodiment, that memory supports Single-ErrorCorrecting Double-Error Detecting (“SECDED”) Error Correction Code(“ECC”) to protect data. In at least one embodiment, ECC can providehigher reliability for compute applications that are sensitive to datacorruption.

In at least one embodiment, PPU implements a multi-level memoryhierarchy. In at least one embodiment, memory partition unit 3500supports a unified memory to provide a single unified virtual addressspace for central processing unit (“CPU”) and PPU memory, enabling datasharing between virtual memory systems. In at least one embodimentfrequency of accesses by a PPU to a memory located on other processorsis traced to ensure that memory pages are moved to physical memory ofPPU that is accessing pages more frequently. In at least one embodiment,high-speed GPU interconnect 3308 supports address translation servicesallowing PPU to directly access a CPU's page tables and providing fullaccess to CPU memory by a PPU.

In at least one embodiment, copy engines transfer data between multiplePPUs or between PPUs and CPUs. In at least one embodiment, copy enginescan generate page faults for addresses that are not mapped into pagetables and memory partition unit 3500 then services page faults, mappingaddresses into page table, after which copy engine performs a transfer.In at least one embodiment, memory is pinned (i.e., non-pageable) formultiple copy engine operations between multiple processors,substantially reducing available memory. In at least one embodiment,with hardware page faulting, addresses can be passed to copy engineswithout regard as to whether memory pages are resident, and a copyprocess is transparent.

Data from memory 3304 of FIG. 33 or other system memory is fetched bymemory partition unit 3500 and stored in L2 cache 3504, which is locatedon-chip and is shared between various GPCs, in accordance with at leastone embodiment. Each memory partition unit 3500, in at least oneembodiment, includes, without limitation, at least a portion of L2 cacheassociated with a corresponding memory device. In at least oneembodiment, lower level caches are implemented in various units withinGPCs. In at least one embodiment, each of SMs 3414 in FIG. 34 mayimplement a Level 1 (“L1”) cache wherein that L1 cache is private memorythat is dedicated to a particular SM 3414 and data from L2 cache 3504 isfetched and stored in each L1 cache for processing in functional unitsof SMs 3414. In at least one embodiment, L2 cache 3504 is coupled tomemory interface 3506 and XBar 3320 shown in FIG. 33.

ROP unit 3502 performs graphics raster operations related to pixelcolor, such as color compression, pixel blending, and more, in at leastone embodiment. ROP unit 3502, in at least one embodiment, implementsdepth testing in conjunction with raster engine 3408, receiving a depthfor a sample location associated with a pixel fragment from a cullingengine of raster engine 3408. In at least one embodiment, depth istested against a corresponding depth in a depth buffer for a samplelocation associated with a fragment. In at least one embodiment, if thatfragment passes that depth test for that sample location, then ROP unit3502 updates depth buffer and transmits a result of that depth test toraster engine 3408. It will be appreciated that a number of partitionunits 3500 may be different than a number of GPCs and, therefore, eachROP unit 3502 can, in at least one embodiment, be coupled to each GPC.In at least one embodiment, ROP unit 3502 tracks packets received fromdifferent GPCs and determines whether a result generated by ROP unit3502 is to be routed to through XBar 3320.

FIG. 36 illustrates a streaming multi-processor (“SM”) 3600, accordingto at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, SM 3600 is SM ofFIG. 34. In at least one embodiment, SM 3600 includes, withoutlimitation, an instruction cache 3602, one or more scheduler units 3604,a register file 3608, one or more processing cores (“cores”) 3610, oneor more special function units (“SFUs”) 3612, one or more load/storeunits (“LSUs”) 3614, an interconnect network 3616, a shared memory/levelone (“L1”) cache 3618, and/or any suitable combination thereof.

In at least one embodiment, a work distribution unit dispatches tasksfor execution on general processing clusters (“GPCs”) of parallelprocessing units (“PPUs”) and each task is allocated to a particularData Processing Cluster (“DPC”) within a GPC and, if a task isassociated with a shader program, that task is allocated to one of SMs3600. In at least one embodiment, scheduler unit 3604 receives tasksfrom a work distribution unit and manages instruction scheduling for oneor more thread blocks assigned to SM 3600. In at least one embodiment,scheduler unit 3604 schedules thread blocks for execution as warps ofparallel threads, wherein each thread block is allocated at least onewarp. In at least one embodiment, each warp executes threads. In atleast one embodiment, scheduler unit 3604 manages a plurality ofdifferent thread blocks, allocating warps to different thread blocks andthen dispatching instructions from plurality of different cooperativegroups to various functional units (e.g., processing cores 3610, SFUs3612, and LSUs 3614) during each clock cycle.

In at least one embodiment, Cooperative Groups may refer to aprogramming model for organizing groups of communicating threads thatallows developers to express granularity at which threads arecommunicating, enabling expression of richer, more efficient paralleldecompositions. In at least one embodiment, cooperative launch APIssupport synchronization amongst thread blocks for execution of parallelalgorithms. In at least one embodiment, applications of conventionalprogramming models provide a single, simple construct for synchronizingcooperating threads: a barrier across all threads of a thread block(e.g., syncthreads( ) function). However, in at least one embodiment,programmers may define groups of threads at smaller than thread blockgranularities and synchronize within defined groups to enable greaterperformance, design flexibility, and software reuse in form ofcollective group-wide function interfaces. In at least one embodiment,Cooperative Groups enables programmers to define groups of threadsexplicitly at sub-block (i.e., as small as a single thread) andmulti-block granularities, and to perform collective operations such assynchronization on threads in a cooperative group. In at least oneembodiment, that programming model supports clean composition acrosssoftware boundaries, so that libraries and utility functions cansynchronize safely within their local context without having to makeassumptions about convergence. In at least one embodiment, CooperativeGroups primitives enable new patterns of cooperative parallelism,including, without limitation, producer-consumer parallelism,opportunistic parallelism, and global synchronization across an entiregrid of thread blocks.

In at least one embodiment, a dispatch unit 3606 is configured totransmit instructions to one or more functional units and scheduler unit3604 and includes, without limitation, two dispatch units 3606 thatenable two different instructions from a common warp to be dispatchedduring each clock cycle. In at least one embodiment, each scheduler unit3604 includes a single dispatch unit 3606 or additional dispatch units3606.

In at least one embodiment, each SM 3600, in at least one embodiment,includes, without limitation, register file 3608 that provides a set ofregisters for functional units of SM 3600. In at least one embodiment,register file 3608 is divided between each functional unit such thateach functional unit is allocated a dedicated portion of register file3608. In at least one embodiment, register file 3608 is divided betweendifferent warps being executed by SM 3600 and register file 3608provides temporary storage for operands connected to data paths offunctional units. In at least one embodiment, each SM 3600 comprises,without limitation, a plurality of L processing cores 3610, where L is apositive integer. In at least one embodiment, SM 3600 includes, withoutlimitation, a large number (e.g., 128 or more) of distinct processingcores 3610. In at least one embodiment, each processing core 3610includes, without limitation, a fully-pipelined, single-precision,double-precision, and/or mixed precision processing unit that includes,without limitation, a floating point arithmetic logic unit and aninteger arithmetic logic unit. In at least one embodiment, floatingpoint arithmetic logic units implement IEEE 754-2008 standard forfloating point arithmetic. In at least one embodiment, processing cores3610 include, without limitation, 64 single-precision (32-bit) floatingpoint cores, 64 integer cores, 32 double-precision (64-bit) floatingpoint cores, and 8 tensor cores.

Tensor cores are configured to perform matrix operations in accordancewith at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, one or moretensor cores are included in processing cores 3610. In at least oneembodiment, tensor cores are configured to perform deep learning matrixarithmetic, such as convolution operations for neural network trainingand inferencing. In at least one embodiment, each tensor core operateson a 4×4 matrix and performs a matrix multiply and accumulate operation,D=A×B+C, where A, B, C, and D are 4×4 matrices.

In at least one embodiment, matrix multiply inputs A and B are 16-bitfloating point matrices and accumulation matrices C and D are 16-bitfloating point or 32-bit floating point matrices. In at least oneembodiment, tensor cores operate on 16-bit floating point input datawith 32-bit floating point accumulation. In at least one embodiment,16-bit floating point multiply uses 64 operations and results in a fullprecision product that is then accumulated using 32-bit floating pointaddition with other intermediate products for a 4×4×4 matrix multiply.Tensor cores are used to perform much larger two-dimensional or higherdimensional matrix operations, built up from these smaller elements, inat least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, an API, such as aCUDA 9 C++ API, exposes specialized matrix load, matrix multiply andaccumulate, and matrix store operations to efficiently use tensor coresfrom a CUDA-C++ program. In at least one embodiment, at a CUDA level, awarp-level interface assumes 16×16 size matrices spanning all 32 threadsof warp.

In at least one embodiment, each SM 3600 comprises, without limitation,M SFUs 3612 that perform special functions (e.g., attribute evaluation,reciprocal square root, and like). In at least one embodiment, SFUs 3612include, without limitation, a tree traversal unit configured totraverse a hierarchical tree data structure. In at least one embodiment,SFUs 3612 include, without limitation, a texture unit configured toperform texture map filtering operations. In at least one embodiment,texture units are configured to load texture maps (e.g., a 2D array oftexels) from memory and sample texture maps to produce sampled texturevalues for use in shader programs executed by SM 3600. In at least oneembodiment, texture maps are stored in shared memory/L1 cache 3618. Inat least one embodiment, texture units implement texture operations suchas filtering operations using mip-maps (e.g., texture maps of varyinglevels of detail), in accordance with at least one embodiment. In atleast one embodiment, each SM 3600 includes, without limitation, twotexture units.

Each SM 3600 comprises, without limitation, N LSUs 3614 that implementload and store operations between shared memory/L1 cache 3618 andregister file 3608, in at least one embodiment. Interconnect network3616 connects each functional unit to register file 3608 and LSU 3614 toregister file 3608 and shared memory/L1 cache 3618 in at least oneembodiment. In at least one embodiment, interconnect network 3616 is acrossbar that can be configured to connect any functional units to anyregisters in register file 3608 and connect LSUs 3614 to register file3608 and memory locations in shared memory/L1 cache 3618.

In at least one embodiment, shared memory/L1 cache 3618 is an array ofon-chip memory that allows for data storage and communication between SM3600 and primitive engine and between threads in SM 3600, in at leastone embodiment. In at least one embodiment, shared memory/L1 cache 3618comprises, without limitation, 128 KB of storage capacity and is in apath from SM 3600 to a partition unit. In at least one embodiment,shared memory/L1 cache 3618, in at least one embodiment, is used tocache reads and writes. In at least one embodiment, one or more ofshared memory/L1 cache 3618, L2 cache, and memory are backing stores.

Combining data cache and shared memory functionality into a singlememory block provides improved performance for both types of memoryaccesses, in at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment,capacity is used or is usable as a cache by programs that do not useshared memory, such as if shared memory is configured to use half of acapacity, and texture and load/store operations can use remainingcapacity. Integration within shared memory/L1 cache 3618 enables sharedmemory/L1 cache 3618 to function as a high-throughput conduit forstreaming data while simultaneously providing high-bandwidth andlow-latency access to frequently reused data, in accordance with atleast one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, when configured forgeneral purpose parallel computation, a simpler configuration can beused compared with graphics processing. In at least one embodiment,fixed function graphics processing units are bypassed, creating a muchsimpler programming model. In a general purpose parallel computationconfiguration, a work distribution unit assigns and distributes blocksof threads directly to DPCs, in at least one embodiment. In at least oneembodiment, threads in a block execute a common program, using a uniquethread ID in calculation to ensure each thread generates unique results,using SM 3600 to execute program and perform calculations, sharedmemory/L1 cache 3618 to communicate between threads, and LSU 3614 toread and write global memory through shared memory/L1 cache 3618 andmemory partition unit. In at least one embodiment, when configured forgeneral purpose parallel computation, SM 3600 writes commands thatscheduler unit 3604 can use to launch new work on DPCs.

In at least one embodiment, a PPU is included in or coupled to a desktopcomputer, a laptop computer, a tablet computer, servers, supercomputers,a smart-phone (e.g., a wireless, hand-held device), personal digitalassistant (“PDA”), a digital camera, a vehicle, a head mounted display,a hand-held electronic device, and more. In at least one embodiment, aPPU is embodied on a single semiconductor substrate. In at least oneembodiment, a PPU is included in a system-on-a-chip (“SoC”) along withone or more other devices such as additional PPUs, memory, a reducedinstruction set computer (“RISC”) CPU, a memory management unit (“MMU”),a digital-to-analog converter (“DAC”), and like.

In at least one embodiment, a PPU may be included on a graphics cardthat includes one or more memory devices. In at least one embodiment,that graphics card may be configured to interface with a PCIe slot on amotherboard of a desktop computer. In at least one embodiment, that PPUmay be an integrated graphics processing unit (“iGPU”) included inchipset of a motherboard.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B. In at least oneembodiment, deep learning application processor is used to train amachine learning model, such as a neural network, to predict or inferinformation provided to SM 3600. In at least one embodiment, SM 3600 isused to infer or predict information based on a trained machine learningmodel (e.g., neural network) that has been trained by another processoror system or by SM 3600. In at least one embodiment, SM 3600 may be usedto perform one or more neural network use cases described herein.

Embodiments are disclosed related a virtualized computing platform foradvanced computing, such as image inferencing and image processing inmedical applications. Without limitation, embodiments may includeradiography, magnetic resonance imaging (MM), nuclear medicine,ultrasound, sonography, elastography, photoacoustic imaging, tomography,echocardiography, functional near-infrared spectroscopy, and magneticparticle imaging, or a combination thereof. In at least one embodiment,a virtualized computing platform and associated processes describedherein may additionally or alternatively be used, without limitation, inforensic science analysis, sub-surface detection and imaging (e.g., oilexploration, archaeology, paleontology, etc.), topography, oceanography,geology, osteology, meteorology, intelligent area or object tracking andmonitoring, sensor data processing (e.g., RADAR, SONAR, LIDAR, etc.),and/or genomics and gene sequencing.

With reference to FIG. 37, FIG. 37 is an example data flow diagram for aprocess 3700 of generating and deploying an image processing andinferencing pipeline, in accordance with at least one embodiment. In atleast one embodiment, process 3700 may be deployed for use with imagingdevices, processing devices, genomics devices, gene sequencing devices,radiology devices, and/or other device types at one or more facilities3702, such as medical facilities, hospitals, healthcare institutes,clinics, research or diagnostic labs, etc. In at least one embodiment,process 3700 may be deployed to perform genomics analysis andinferencing on sequencing data. Examples of genomic analyses that may beperformed using systems and processes described herein include, withoutlimitation, variant calling, mutation detection, and gene expressionquantification.

In at least one embodiment, process 3700 may be executed within atraining system 3704 and/or a deployment system 3706. In at least oneembodiment, training system 3704 may be used to perform training,deployment, and implementation of machine learning models (e.g., neuralnetworks, object detection algorithms, computer vision algorithms, etc.)for use in deployment system 3706. In at least one embodiment,deployment system 3706 may be configured to offload processing andcompute resources among a distributed computing environment to reduceinfrastructure requirements at facility 3702. In at least oneembodiment, deployment system 3706 may provide a streamlined platformfor selecting, customizing, and implementing virtual instruments for usewith imaging devices (e.g., MRI, CT Scan, X-Ray, Ultrasound, etc.) orsequencing devices at facility 3702. In at least one embodiment, virtualinstruments may include software-defined applications for performing oneor more processing operations with respect to imaging data generated byimaging devices, sequencing devices, radiology devices, and/or otherdevice types. In at least one embodiment, one or more applications in apipeline may use or call upon services (e.g., inference, visualization,compute, AI, etc.) of deployment system 3706 during execution ofapplications.

In at least one embodiment, some of applications used in advancedprocessing and inferencing pipelines may use machine learning models orother AI to perform one or more processing steps. In at least oneembodiment, machine learning models may be trained at facility 3702using data 3708 (such as imaging data) generated at facility 3702 (andstored on one or more picture archiving and communication system (PACS)servers at facility 3702), may be trained using imaging or sequencingdata 3708 from another facility or facilities (e.g., a differenthospital, lab, clinic, etc.), or a combination thereof. In at least oneembodiment, training system 3704 may be used to provide applications,services, and/or other resources for generating working, deployablemachine learning models for deployment system 3706.

In at least one embodiment, a model registry 3724 may be backed byobject storage that may support versioning and object metadata. In atleast one embodiment, object storage may be accessible through, forexample, a cloud storage (e.g., a cloud 3826 of FIG. 38) compatibleapplication programming interface (API) from within a cloud platform. Inat least one embodiment, machine learning models within model registry3724 may uploaded, listed, modified, or deleted by developers orpartners of a system interacting with an API. In at least oneembodiment, an API may provide access to methods that allow users withappropriate credentials to associate models with applications, such thatmodels may be executed as part of execution of containerizedinstantiations of applications.

In at least one embodiment, a training pipeline 3804 (FIG. 38) mayinclude a scenario where facility 3702 is training their own machinelearning model, or has an existing machine learning model that needs tobe optimized or updated. In at least one embodiment, imaging data 3708generated by imaging device(s), sequencing devices, and/or other devicetypes may be received. In at least one embodiment, once imaging data3708 is received, AI-assisted annotation 3710 may be used to aid ingenerating annotations corresponding to imaging data 3708 to be used asground truth data for a machine learning model. In at least oneembodiment, AI-assisted annotation 3710 may include one or more machinelearning models (e.g., convolutional neural networks (CNNs)) that may betrained to generate annotations corresponding to certain types ofimaging data 3708 (e.g., from certain devices) and/or certain types ofanomalies in imaging data 3708. In at least one embodiment, AI-assistedannotations 3710 may then be used directly, or may be adjusted orfine-tuned using an annotation tool (e.g., by a researcher, a clinician,a doctor, a scientist, etc.), to generate ground truth data. In at leastone embodiment, in some examples, labeled clinic data 3712 (e.g.,annotations provided by a clinician, doctor, scientist, technician,etc.) may be used as ground truth data for training a machine learningmodel. In at least one embodiment, AI-assisted annotations 3710, labeledclinic data 3712, or a combination thereof may be used as ground truthdata for training a machine learning model. In at least one embodiment,a trained machine learning model may be referred to as an output model3716, and may be used by deployment system 3706, as described herein.

In at least one embodiment, training pipeline 3804 (FIG. 38) may includea scenario where facility 3702 needs a machine learning model for use inperforming one or more processing tasks for one or more applications indeployment system 3706, but facility 3702 may not currently have such amachine learning model (or may not have a model that is optimized,efficient, or effective for such purposes). In at least one embodiment,an existing machine learning model may be selected from model registry3724. In at least one embodiment, model registry 3724 may includemachine learning models trained to perform a variety of differentinference tasks on imaging data. In at least one embodiment, machinelearning models in model registry 3724 may have been trained on imagingdata from different facilities than facility 3702 (e.g., facilitiesremotely located). In at least one embodiment, machine learning modelsmay have been trained on imaging data from one location, two locations,or any number of locations. In at least one embodiment, when beingtrained on imaging data from a specific location, training may takeplace at that location, or at least in a manner that protectsconfidentiality of imaging data or restricts imaging data from beingtransferred off-premises (e.g., to comply with HIPAA regulations,privacy regulations, etc.). In at least one embodiment, once a model istrained—or partially trained—at one location, a machine learning modelmay be added to model registry 3724. In at least one embodiment, amachine learning model may then be retrained, or updated, at any numberof other facilities, and a retrained or updated model may be madeavailable in model registry 3724. In at least one embodiment, a machinelearning model may then be selected from model registry 3724—andreferred to as output model 3716—and may be used in deployment system3706 to perform one or more processing tasks for one or moreapplications of a deployment system.

In at least one embodiment, training pipeline 3804 (FIG. 38) may be usedin a scenario that includes facility 3702 requiring a machine learningmodel for use in performing one or more processing tasks for one or moreapplications in deployment system 3706, but facility 3702 may notcurrently have such a machine learning model (or may not have a modelthat is optimized, efficient, or effective for such purposes). In atleast one embodiment, a machine learning model selected from modelregistry 3724 might not be fine-tuned or optimized for imaging data 3708generated at facility 3702 because of differences in populations,genetic variations, robustness of training data used to train a machinelearning model, diversity in anomalies of training data, and/or otherissues with training data. In at least one embodiment, AI-assistedannotation 3710 may be used to aid in generating annotationscorresponding to imaging data 3708 to be used as ground truth data forretraining or updating a machine learning model. In at least oneembodiment, labeled clinic data 3712 (e.g., annotations provided by aclinician, doctor, scientist, etc.) may be used as ground truth data fortraining a machine learning model. In at least one embodiment,retraining or updating a machine learning model may be referred to asmodel training 3714. In at least one embodiment, model training3714—e.g., AI-assisted annotations 3710, labeled clinic data 3712, or acombination thereof—may be used as ground truth data for retraining orupdating a machine learning model.

In at least one embodiment, deployment system 3706 may include software3718, services 3720, hardware 3722, and/or other components, features,and functionality. In at least one embodiment, deployment system 3706may include a software “stack,” such that software 3718 may be built ontop of services 3720 and may use services 3720 to perform some or all ofprocessing tasks, and services 3720 and software 3718 may be built ontop of hardware 3722 and use hardware 3722 to execute processing,storage, and/or other compute tasks of deployment system 3706.

In at least one embodiment, software 3718 may include any number ofdifferent containers, where each container may execute an instantiationof an application. In at least one embodiment, each application mayperform one or more processing tasks in an advanced processing andinferencing pipeline (e.g., inferencing, object detection, featuredetection, segmentation, image enhancement, calibration, etc.). In atleast one embodiment, for each type of imaging device (e.g., CT, MRI,X-Ray, ultrasound, sonography, echocardiography, etc.), sequencingdevice, radiology device, genomics device, etc., there may be any numberof containers that may perform a data processing task with respect toimaging data 3708 (or other data types, such as those described herein)generated by a device. In at least one embodiment, an advancedprocessing and inferencing pipeline may be defined based on selectionsof different containers that are desired or required for processingimaging data 3708, in addition to containers that receive and configureimaging data for use by each container and/or for use by facility 3702after processing through a pipeline (e.g., to convert outputs back to ausable data type, such as digital imaging and communications in medicine(DICOM) data, radiology information system (RIS) data, clinicalinformation system (CIS) data, remote procedure call (RPC) data, datasubstantially compliant with a representation state transfer (REST)interface, data substantially compliant with a file-based interface,and/or raw data, for storage and display at facility 3702). In at leastone embodiment, a combination of containers within software 3718 (e.g.,that make up a pipeline) may be referred to as a virtual instrument (asdescribed in more detail herein), and a virtual instrument may leverageservices 3720 and hardware 3722 to execute some or all processing tasksof applications instantiated in containers.

In at least one embodiment, a data processing pipeline may receive inputdata (e.g., imaging data 3708) in a DICOM, RIS, CIS, REST compliant,RPC, raw, and/or other format in response to an inference request (e.g.,a request from a user of deployment system 3706, such as a clinician, adoctor, a radiologist, etc.). In at least one embodiment, input data maybe representative of one or more images, video, and/or other datarepresentations generated by one or more imaging devices, sequencingdevices, radiology devices, genomics devices, and/or other device types.In at least one embodiment, data may undergo pre-processing as part ofdata processing pipeline to prepare data for processing by one or moreapplications. In at least one embodiment, post-processing may beperformed on an output of one or more inferencing tasks or otherprocessing tasks of a pipeline to prepare an output data for a nextapplication and/or to prepare output data for transmission and/or use bya user (e.g., as a response to an inference request). In at least oneembodiment, inferencing tasks may be performed by one or more machinelearning models, such as trained or deployed neural networks, which mayinclude output models 3716 of training system 3704.

In at least one embodiment, tasks of data processing pipeline may beencapsulated in a container(s) that each represent a discrete, fullyfunctional instantiation of an application and virtualized computingenvironment that is able to reference machine learning models. In atleast one embodiment, containers or applications may be published into aprivate (e.g., limited access) area of a container registry (describedin more detail herein), and trained or deployed models may be stored inmodel registry 3724 and associated with one or more applications. In atleast one embodiment, images of applications (e.g., container images)may be available in a container registry, and once selected by a userfrom a container registry for deployment in a pipeline, an image may beused to generate a container for an instantiation of an application foruse by a user's system.

In at least one embodiment, developers (e.g., software developers,clinicians, doctors, etc.) may develop, publish, and store applications(e.g., as containers) for performing image processing and/or inferencingon supplied data. In at least one embodiment, development, publishing,and/or storing may be performed using a software development kit (SDK)associated with a system (e.g., to ensure that an application and/orcontainer developed is compliant with or compatible with a system). Inat least one embodiment, an application that is developed may be testedlocally (e.g., at a first facility, on data from a first facility) withan SDK which may support at least some of services 3720 as a system(e.g., system 3800 of FIG. 38). In at least one embodiment, becauseDICOM objects may contain anywhere from one to hundreds of images orother data types, and due to a variation in data, a developer may beresponsible for managing (e.g., setting constructs for, buildingpre-processing into an application, etc.) extraction and preparation ofincoming DICOM data. In at least one embodiment, once validated bysystem 3800 (e.g., for accuracy, safety, patient privacy, etc.), anapplication may be available in a container registry for selectionand/or implementation by a user (e.g., a hospital, clinic, lab,healthcare provider, etc.) to perform one or more processing tasks withrespect to data at a facility (e.g., a second facility) of a user.

In at least one embodiment, developers may then share applications orcontainers through a network for access and use by users of a system(e.g., system 3800 of FIG. 38). In at least one embodiment, completedand validated applications or containers may be stored in a containerregistry and associated machine learning models may be stored in modelregistry 3724. In at least one embodiment, a requesting entity (e.g., auser at a medical facility)—who provides an inference or imageprocessing request—may browse a container registry and/or model registry3724 for an application, container, dataset, machine learning model,etc., select a desired combination of elements for inclusion in dataprocessing pipeline, and submit an imaging processing request. In atleast one embodiment, a request may include input data (and associatedpatient data, in some examples) that is necessary to perform a request,and/or may include a selection of application(s) and/or machine learningmodels to be executed in processing a request. In at least oneembodiment, a request may then be passed to one or more components ofdeployment system 3706 (e.g., a cloud) to perform processing of dataprocessing pipeline. In at least one embodiment, processing bydeployment system 3706 may include referencing selected elements (e.g.,applications, containers, models, etc.) from a container registry and/ormodel registry 3724. In at least one embodiment, once results aregenerated by a pipeline, results may be returned to a user for reference(e.g., for viewing in a viewing application suite executing on a local,on-premises workstation or terminal). In at least one embodiment, aradiologist may receive results from an data processing pipelineincluding any number of application and/or containers, where results mayinclude anomaly detection in X-rays, CT scans, MRIs, etc.

In at least one embodiment, to aid in processing or execution ofapplications or containers in pipelines, services 3720 may be leveraged.In at least one embodiment, services 3720 may include compute services,artificial intelligence (AI) services, visualization services, and/orother service types. In at least one embodiment, services 3720 mayprovide functionality that is common to one or more applications insoftware 3718, so functionality may be abstracted to a service that maybe called upon or leveraged by applications. In at least one embodiment,functionality provided by services 3720 may run dynamically and moreefficiently, while also scaling well by allowing applications to processdata in parallel (e.g., using a parallel computing platform 3830 (FIG.38)). In at least one embodiment, rather than each application thatshares a same functionality offered by a service 3720 being required tohave a respective instance of service 3720, service 3720 may be sharedbetween and among various applications. In at least one embodiment,services may include an inference server or engine that may be used forexecuting detection or segmentation tasks, as non-limiting examples. Inat least one embodiment, a model training service may be included thatmay provide machine learning model training and/or retrainingcapabilities. In at least one embodiment, a data augmentation servicemay further be included that may provide GPU accelerated data (e.g.,DICOM, RIS, CIS, REST compliant, RPC, raw, etc.) extraction, resizing,scaling, and/or other augmentation. In at least one embodiment, avisualization service may be used that may add image renderingeffects—such as ray-tracing, rasterization, denoising, sharpening,etc.—to add realism to two-dimensional (2D) and/or three-dimensional(3D) models. In at least one embodiment, virtual instrument services maybe included that provide for beam-forming, segmentation, inferencing,imaging, and/or support for other applications within pipelines ofvirtual instruments.

In at least one embodiment, where a service 3720 includes an AI service(e.g., an inference service), one or more machine learning modelsassociated with an application for anomaly detection (e.g., tumors,growth abnormalities, scarring, etc.) may be executed by calling upon(e.g., as an API call) an inference service (e.g., an inference server)to execute machine learning model(s), or processing thereof, as part ofapplication execution. In at least one embodiment, where anotherapplication includes one or more machine learning models forsegmentation tasks, an application may call upon an inference service toexecute machine learning models for performing one or more of processingoperations associated with segmentation tasks. In at least oneembodiment, software 3718 implementing advanced processing andinferencing pipeline that includes segmentation application and anomalydetection application may be streamlined because each application maycall upon a same inference service to perform one or more inferencingtasks.

In at least one embodiment, hardware 3722 may include GPUs, CPUs,graphics cards, an AI/deep learning system (e.g., an AI supercomputer,such as NVIDIA's DGX supercomputer system), a cloud platform, or acombination thereof. In at least one embodiment, different types ofhardware 3722 may be used to provide efficient, purpose-built supportfor software 3718 and services 3720 in deployment system 3706. In atleast one embodiment, use of GPU processing may be implemented forprocessing locally (e.g., at facility 3702), within an AI/deep learningsystem, in a cloud system, and/or in other processing components ofdeployment system 3706 to improve efficiency, accuracy, and efficacy ofimage processing, image reconstruction, segmentation, MM exams, strokeor heart attack detection (e.g., in real-time), image quality inrendering, etc. In at least one embodiment, a facility may includeimaging devices, genomics devices, sequencing devices, and/or otherdevice types on-premises that may leverage GPUs to generate imaging datarepresentative of a subject's anatomy.

In at least one embodiment, software 3718 and/or services 3720 may beoptimized for GPU processing with respect to deep learning, machinelearning, and/or high-performance computing, as non-limiting examples.In at least one embodiment, at least some of computing environment ofdeployment system 3706 and/or training system 3704 may be executed in adatacenter one or more supercomputers or high performance computingsystems, with GPU optimized software (e.g., hardware and softwarecombination of NVIDIA's DGX system). In at least one embodiment,datacenters may be compliant with provisions of HIPAA, such thatreceipt, processing, and transmission of imaging data and/or otherpatient data is securely handled with respect to privacy of patientdata. In at least one embodiment, hardware 3722 may include any numberof GPUs that may be called upon to perform processing of data inparallel, as described herein. In at least one embodiment, cloudplatform may further include GPU processing for GPU-optimized executionof deep learning tasks, machine learning tasks, or other computingtasks. In at least one embodiment, cloud platform (e.g., NVIDIA's NGC)may be executed using an AI/deep learning supercomputer(s) and/orGPU-optimized software (e.g., as provided on NVIDIA's DGX systems) as ahardware abstraction and scaling platform. In at least one embodiment,cloud platform may integrate an application container clustering systemor orchestration system (e.g., KUBERNETES) on multiple GPUs to enableseamless scaling and load balancing.

FIG. 38 is a system diagram for an example system 3800 for generatingand deploying an imaging deployment pipeline, in accordance with atleast one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, system 3800 may beused to implement process 3700 of FIG. 37 and/or other processesincluding advanced processing and inferencing pipelines. In at least oneembodiment, system 3800 may include training system 3704 and deploymentsystem 3706. In at least one embodiment, training system 3704 anddeployment system 3706 may be implemented using software 3718, services3720, and/or hardware 3722, as described herein.

In at least one embodiment, system 3800 (e.g., training system 3704and/or deployment system 3706) may implemented in a cloud computingenvironment (e.g., using cloud 3826). In at least one embodiment, system3800 may be implemented locally with respect to a healthcare servicesfacility, or as a combination of both cloud and local computingresources. In at least one embodiment, in embodiments where cloudcomputing is implemented, patient data may be separated from, orunprocessed by, by one or more components of system 3800 that wouldrender processing non-compliant with HIPAA and/or other data handlingand privacy regulations or laws. In at least one embodiment, access toAPIs in cloud 3826 may be restricted to authorized users through enactedsecurity measures or protocols. In at least one embodiment, a securityprotocol may include web tokens that may be signed by an authentication(e.g., AuthN, AuthZ, Gluecon, etc.) service and may carry appropriateauthorization. In at least one embodiment, APIs of virtual instruments(described herein), or other instantiations of system 3800, may berestricted to a set of public IPs that have been vetted or authorizedfor interaction.

In at least one embodiment, various components of system 3800 maycommunicate between and among one another using any of a variety ofdifferent network types, including but not limited to local areanetworks (LANs) and/or wide area networks (WANs) via wired and/orwireless communication protocols. In at least one embodiment,communication between facilities and components of system 3800 (e.g.,for transmitting inference requests, for receiving results of inferencerequests, etc.) may be communicated over a data bus or data busses,wireless data protocols (Wi-Fi), wired data protocols (e.g., Ethernet),etc.

In at least one embodiment, training system 3704 may execute trainingpipelines 3804, similar to those described herein with respect to FIG.37. In at least one embodiment, where one or more machine learningmodels are to be used in deployment pipelines 3810 by deployment system3706, training pipelines 3804 may be used to train or retrain one ormore (e.g., pre-trained) models, and/or implement one or more ofpre-trained models 3806 (e.g., without a need for retraining orupdating). In at least one embodiment, as a result of training pipelines3804, output model(s) 3716 may be generated. In at least one embodiment,training pipelines 3804 may include any number of processing steps, suchas but not limited to imaging data (or other input data) conversion oradaption (e.g., using DICOM adapter 3802A to convert DICOM images toanother format suitable for processing by respective machine learningmodels, such as Neuroimaging Informatics Technology Initiative (NIfTI)format), AI-assisted annotation 3710, labeling or annotating of imagingdata 3708 to generate labeled clinic data 3712, model selection from amodel registry, model training 3714, training, retraining, or updatingmodels, and/or other processing steps. In at least one embodiment, fordifferent machine learning models used by deployment system 3706,different training pipelines 3804 may be used. In at least oneembodiment, training pipeline 3804 similar to a first example describedwith respect to FIG. 37 may be used for a first machine learning model,training pipeline 3804 similar to a second example described withrespect to FIG. 37 may be used for a second machine learning model, andtraining pipeline 3804 similar to a third example described with respectto FIG. 37 may be used for a third machine learning model. In at leastone embodiment, any combination of tasks within training system 3704 maybe used depending on what is required for each respective machinelearning model. In at least one embodiment, one or more of machinelearning models may already be trained and ready for deployment somachine learning models may not undergo any processing by trainingsystem 3704, and may be implemented by deployment system 3706.

In at least one embodiment, output model(s) 3716 and/or pre-trainedmodel(s) 3806 may include any types of machine learning models dependingon implementation or embodiment. In at least one embodiment, and withoutlimitation, machine learning models used by system 3800 may includemachine learning model(s) using linear regression, logistic regression,decision trees, support vector machines (SVM), Naïve Bayes, k-nearestneighbor (Knn), K means clustering, random forest, dimensionalityreduction algorithms, gradient boosting algorithms, neural networks(e.g., auto-encoders, convolutional, recurrent, perceptrons, Long/ShortTerm Memory (LSTM), Hopfield, Boltzmann, deep belief, deconvolutional,generative adversarial, liquid state machine, etc.), and/or other typesof machine learning models.

In at least one embodiment, training pipelines 3804 may includeAI-assisted annotation, as described in more detail herein with respectto at least FIG. 41B. In at least one embodiment, labeled clinic data3712 (e.g., traditional annotation) may be generated by any number oftechniques. In at least one embodiment, labels or other annotations maybe generated within a drawing program (e.g., an annotation program), acomputer aided design (CAD) program, a labeling program, another type ofprogram suitable for generating annotations or labels for ground truth,and/or may be hand drawn, in some examples. In at least one embodiment,ground truth data may be synthetically produced (e.g., generated fromcomputer models or renderings), real produced (e.g., designed andproduced from real-world data), machine-automated (e.g., using featureanalysis and learning to extract features from data and then generatelabels), human annotated (e.g., labeler, or annotation expert, defineslocation of labels), and/or a combination thereof. In at least oneembodiment, for each instance of imaging data 3708 (or other data typeused by machine learning models), there may be corresponding groundtruth data generated by training system 3704. In at least oneembodiment, AI-assisted annotation may be performed as part ofdeployment pipelines 3810; either in addition to, or in lieu ofAI-assisted annotation included in training pipelines 3804. In at leastone embodiment, system 3800 may include a multi-layer platform that mayinclude a software layer (e.g., software 3718) of diagnosticapplications (or other application types) that may perform one or moremedical imaging and diagnostic functions. In at least one embodiment,system 3800 may be communicatively coupled to (e.g., via encryptedlinks) PACS server networks of one or more facilities. In at least oneembodiment, system 3800 may be configured to access and referenced data(e.g., DICOM data, RIS data, raw data, CIS data, REST compliant data,RPC data, raw data, etc.) from PACS servers (e.g., via a DICOM adapter3802, or another data type adapter such as RIS, CIS, REST compliant,RPC, raw, etc.) to perform operations, such as training machine learningmodels, deploying machine learning models, image processing,inferencing, and/or other operations.

In at least one embodiment, a software layer may be implemented as asecure, encrypted, and/or authenticated API through which applicationsor containers may be invoked (e.g., called) from an externalenvironment(s) (e.g., facility 3702). In at least one embodiment,applications may then call or execute one or more services 3720 forperforming compute, AI, or visualization tasks associated withrespective applications, and software 3718 and/or services 3720 mayleverage hardware 3722 to perform processing tasks in an effective andefficient manner.

In at least one embodiment, deployment system 3706 may executedeployment pipelines 3810. In at least one embodiment, deploymentpipelines 3810 may include any number of applications that may besequentially, non-sequentially, or otherwise applied to imaging data(and/or other data types) generated by imaging devices, sequencingdevices, genomics devices, etc.—including AI-assisted annotation, asdescribed above. In at least one embodiment, as described herein, adeployment pipeline 3810 for an individual device may be referred to asa virtual instrument for a device (e.g., a virtual ultrasoundinstrument, a virtual CT scan instrument, a virtual sequencinginstrument, etc.). In at least one embodiment, for a single device,there may be more than one deployment pipeline 3810 depending oninformation desired from data generated by a device. In at least oneembodiment, where detections of anomalies are desired from an MMmachine, there may be a first deployment pipeline 3810, and where imageenhancement is desired from output of an MRI machine, there may be asecond deployment pipeline 3810.

In at least one embodiment, applications available for deploymentpipelines 3810 may include any application that may be used forperforming processing tasks on imaging data or other data from devices.In at least one embodiment, different applications may be responsiblefor image enhancement, segmentation, reconstruction, anomaly detection,object detection, feature detection, treatment planning, dosimetry, beamplanning (or other radiation treatment procedures), and/or otheranalysis, image processing, or inferencing tasks. In at least oneembodiment, deployment system 3706 may define constructs for each ofapplications, such that users of deployment system 3706 (e.g., medicalfacilities, labs, clinics, etc.) may understand constructs and adaptapplications for implementation within their respective facility. In atleast one embodiment, an application for image reconstruction may beselected for inclusion in deployment pipeline 3810, but data typegenerated by an imaging device may be different from a data type usedwithin an application. In at least one embodiment, DICOM adapter 3802B(and/or a DICOM reader) or another data type adapter or reader (e.g.,RIS, CIS, REST compliant, RPC, raw, etc.) may be used within deploymentpipeline 3810 to convert data to a form useable by an application withindeployment system 3706. In at least one embodiment, access to DICOM,RIS, CIS, REST compliant, RPC, raw, and/or other data type libraries maybe accumulated and pre-processed, including decoding, extracting, and/orperforming any convolutions, color corrections, sharpness, gamma, and/orother augmentations to data. In at least one embodiment, DICOM, RIS,CIS, REST compliant, RPC, and/or raw data may be unordered and apre-pass may be executed to organize or sort collected data. In at leastone embodiment, because various applications may share common imageoperations, in some embodiments, a data augmentation library (e.g., asone of services 3720) may be used to accelerate these operations. In atleast one embodiment, to avoid bottlenecks of conventional processingapproaches that rely on CPU processing, parallel computing platform 3830may be used for GPU acceleration of these processing tasks.

In at least one embodiment, an image reconstruction application mayinclude a processing task that includes use of a machine learning model.In at least one embodiment, a user may desire to use their own machinelearning model, or to select a machine learning model from modelregistry 3724. In at least one embodiment, a user may implement theirown machine learning model or select a machine learning model forinclusion in an application for performing a processing task. In atleast one embodiment, applications may be selectable and customizable,and by defining constructs of applications, deployment andimplementation of applications for a particular user are presented as amore seamless user experience. In at least one embodiment, by leveragingother features of system 3800—such as services 3720 and hardware3722—deployment pipelines 3810 may be even more user friendly, providefor easier integration, and produce more accurate, efficient, and timelyresults.

In at least one embodiment, deployment system 3706 may include a userinterface 3814 (e.g., a graphical user interface, a web interface, etc.)that may be used to select applications for inclusion in deploymentpipeline(s) 3810, arrange applications, modify or change applications orparameters or constructs thereof, use and interact with deploymentpipeline(s) 3810 during set-up and/or deployment, and/or to otherwiseinteract with deployment system 3706. In at least one embodiment,although not illustrated with respect to training system 3704, userinterface 3814 (or a different user interface) may be used for selectingmodels for use in deployment system 3706, for selecting models fortraining, or retraining, in training system 3704, and/or for otherwiseinteracting with training system 3704.

In at least one embodiment, pipeline manager 3812 may be used, inaddition to an application orchestration system 3828, to manageinteraction between applications or containers of deployment pipeline(s)3810 and services 3720 and/or hardware 3722. In at least one embodiment,pipeline manager 3812 may be configured to facilitate interactions fromapplication to application, from application to service 3720, and/orfrom application or service to hardware 3722. In at least oneembodiment, although illustrated as included in software 3718, this isnot intended to be limiting, and in some examples (e.g., as illustratedin FIG. 39) pipeline manager 3812 may be included in services 3720. Inat least one embodiment, application orchestration system 3828 (e.g.,Kubernetes, DOCKER, etc.) may include a container orchestration systemthat may group applications into containers as logical units forcoordination, management, scaling, and deployment. In at least oneembodiment, by associating applications from deployment pipeline(s) 3810(e.g., a reconstruction application, a segmentation application, etc.)with individual containers, each application may execute in aself-contained environment (e.g., at a kernel level) to increase speedand efficiency.

In at least one embodiment, each application and/or container (or imagethereof) may be individually developed, modified, and deployed (e.g., afirst user or developer may develop, modify, and deploy a firstapplication and a second user or developer may develop, modify, anddeploy a second application separate from a first user or developer),which may allow for focus on, and attention to, a task of a singleapplication and/or container(s) without being hindered by tasks ofanother application(s) or container(s). In at least one embodiment,communication, and cooperation between different containers orapplications may be aided by pipeline manager 3812 and applicationorchestration system 3828. In at least one embodiment, so long as anexpected input and/or output of each container or application is knownby a system (e.g., based on constructs of applications or containers),application orchestration system 3828 and/or pipeline manager 3812 mayfacilitate communication among and between, and sharing of resourcesamong and between, each of applications or containers. In at least oneembodiment, because one or more of applications or containers indeployment pipeline(s) 3810 may share same services and resources,application orchestration system 3828 may orchestrate, load balance, anddetermine sharing of services or resources between and among variousapplications or containers. In at least one embodiment, a scheduler maybe used to track resource requirements of applications or containers,current usage or planned usage of these resources, and resourceavailability. In at least one embodiment, a scheduler may thus allocateresources to different applications and distribute resources between andamong applications in view of requirements and availability of a system.In some examples, a scheduler (and/or other component of applicationorchestration system 3828) may determine resource availability anddistribution based on constraints imposed on a system (e.g., userconstraints), such as quality of service (QoS), urgency of need for dataoutputs (e.g., to determine whether to execute real-time processing ordelayed processing), etc.

In at least one embodiment, services 3720 leveraged by and shared byapplications or containers in deployment system 3706 may include computeservices 3816, AI services 3818, visualization services 3820, and/orother service types. In at least one embodiment, applications may call(e.g., execute) one or more of services 3720 to perform processingoperations for an application. In at least one embodiment, computeservices 3816 may be leveraged by applications to performsuper-computing or other high-performance computing (HPC) tasks. In atleast one embodiment, compute service(s) 3816 may be leveraged toperform parallel processing (e.g., using a parallel computing platform3830) for processing data through one or more of applications and/or oneor more tasks of a single application, substantially simultaneously. Inat least one embodiment, parallel computing platform 3830 (e.g.,NVIDIA's CUDA) may enable general purpose computing on GPUs (GPGPU)(e.g., GPUs 3822). In at least one embodiment, a software layer ofparallel computing platform 3830 may provide access to virtualinstruction sets and parallel computational elements of GPUs, forexecution of compute kernels. In at least one embodiment, parallelcomputing platform 3830 may include memory and, in some embodiments, amemory may be shared between and among multiple containers, and/orbetween and among different processing tasks within a single container.In at least one embodiment, inter-process communication (IPC) calls maybe generated for multiple containers and/or for multiple processeswithin a container to use same data from a shared segment of memory ofparallel computing platform 3830 (e.g., where multiple different stagesof an application or multiple applications are processing sameinformation). In at least one embodiment, rather than making a copy ofdata and moving data to different locations in memory (e.g., aread/write operation), same data in same location of a memory may beused for any number of processing tasks (e.g., at a same time, atdifferent times, etc.). In at least one embodiment, as data is used togenerate new data as a result of processing, this information of a newlocation of data may be stored and shared between various applications.In at least one embodiment, location of data and a location of updatedor modified data may be part of a definition of how a payload isunderstood within containers.

In at least one embodiment, AI services 3818 may be leveraged to performinferencing services for executing machine learning model(s) associatedwith applications (e.g., tasked with performing one or more processingtasks of an application). In at least one embodiment, AI services 3818may leverage AI system 3824 to execute machine learning model(s) (e.g.,neural networks, such as CNNs) for segmentation, reconstruction, objectdetection, feature detection, classification, and/or other inferencingtasks. In at least one embodiment, applications of deploymentpipeline(s) 3810 may use one or more of output models 3716 from trainingsystem 3704 and/or other models of applications to perform inference onimaging data (e.g., DICOM data, RIS data, CIS data, REST compliant data,RPC data, raw data, etc.). In at least one embodiment, two or moreexamples of inferencing using application orchestration system 3828(e.g., a scheduler) may be available. In at least one embodiment, afirst category may include a high priority/low latency path that mayachieve higher service level agreements, such as for performinginference on urgent requests during an emergency, or for a radiologistduring diagnosis. In at least one embodiment, a second category mayinclude a standard priority path that may be used for requests that maybe non-urgent or where analysis may be performed at a later time. In atleast one embodiment, application orchestration system 3828 maydistribute resources (e.g., services 3720 and/or hardware 3722) based onpriority paths for different inferencing tasks of AI services 3818.

In at least one embodiment, shared storage may be mounted to AI services3818 within system 3800. In at least one embodiment, shared storage mayoperate as a cache (or other storage device type) and may be used toprocess inference requests from applications. In at least oneembodiment, when an inference request is submitted, a request may bereceived by a set of API instances of deployment system 3706, and one ormore instances may be selected (e.g., for best fit, for load balancing,etc.) to process a request. In at least one embodiment, to process arequest, a request may be entered into a database, a machine learningmodel may be located from model registry 3724 if not already in a cache,a validation step may ensure appropriate machine learning model isloaded into a cache (e.g., shared storage), and/or a copy of a model maybe saved to a cache. In at least one embodiment, a scheduler (e.g., ofpipeline manager 3812) may be used to launch an application that isreferenced in a request if an application is not already running or ifthere are not enough instances of an application. In at least oneembodiment, if an inference server is not already launched to execute amodel, an inference server may be launched. In at least one embodiment,any number of inference servers may be launched per model. In at leastone embodiment, in a pull model, in which inference servers areclustered, models may be cached whenever load balancing is advantageous.In at least one embodiment, inference servers may be statically loadedin corresponding, distributed servers.

In at least one embodiment, inferencing may be performed using aninference server that runs in a container. In at least one embodiment,an instance of an inference server may be associated with a model (andoptionally a plurality of versions of a model). In at least oneembodiment, if an instance of an inference server does not exist when arequest to perform inference on a model is received, a new instance maybe loaded. In at least one embodiment, when starting an inferenceserver, a model may be passed to an inference server such that a samecontainer may be used to serve different models so long as inferenceserver is running as a different instance.

In at least one embodiment, during application execution, an inferencerequest for a given application may be received, and a container (e.g.,hosting an instance of an inference server) may be loaded (if notalready), and a start procedure may be called. In at least oneembodiment, pre-processing logic in a container may load, decode, and/orperform any additional pre-processing on incoming data (e.g., using aCPU(s) and/or GPU(s)). In at least one embodiment, once data is preparedfor inference, a container may perform inference as necessary on data.In at least one embodiment, this may include a single inference call onone image (e.g., a hand X-ray), or may require inference on hundreds ofimages (e.g., a chest CT). In at least one embodiment, an applicationmay summarize results before completing, which may include, withoutlimitation, a single confidence score, pixel level-segmentation,voxel-level segmentation, generating a visualization, or generating textto summarize findings. In at least one embodiment, different models orapplications may be assigned different priorities. For example, somemodels may have a real-time (TAT less than one minute) priority whileothers may have lower priority (e.g., TAT less than 10 minutes). In atleast one embodiment, model execution times may be measured fromrequesting institution or entity and may include partner networktraversal time, as well as execution on an inference service.

In at least one embodiment, transfer of requests between services 3720and inference applications may be hidden behind a software developmentkit (SDK), and robust transport may be provide through a queue. In atleast one embodiment, a request will be placed in a queue via an API foran individual application/tenant ID combination and an SDK will pull arequest from a queue and give a request to an application. In at leastone embodiment, a name of a queue may be provided in an environment fromwhere an SDK will pick it up. In at least one embodiment, asynchronouscommunication through a queue may be useful as it may allow any instanceof an application to pick up work as it becomes available. In at leastone embodiment, results may be transferred back through a queue, toensure no data is lost. In at least one embodiment, queues may alsoprovide an ability to segment work, as highest priority work may go to aqueue with most instances of an application connected to it, whilelowest priority work may go to a queue with a single instance connectedto it that processes tasks in an order received. In at least oneembodiment, an application may run on a GPU-accelerated instancegenerated in cloud 3826, and an inference service may performinferencing on a GPU.

In at least one embodiment, visualization services 3820 may be leveragedto generate visualizations for viewing outputs of applications and/ordeployment pipeline(s) 3810. In at least one embodiment, GPUs 3822 maybe leveraged by visualization services 3820 to generate visualizations.In at least one embodiment, rendering effects, such as ray-tracing, maybe implemented by visualization services 3820 to generate higher qualityvisualizations. In at least one embodiment, visualizations may include,without limitation, 2D image renderings, 3D volume renderings, 3D volumereconstruction, 2D tomographic slices, virtual reality displays,augmented reality displays, etc. In at least one embodiment, virtualizedenvironments may be used to generate a virtual interactive display orenvironment (e.g., a virtual environment) for interaction by users of asystem (e.g., doctors, nurses, radiologists, etc.). In at least oneembodiment, visualization services 3820 may include an internalvisualizer, cinematics, and/or other rendering or image processingcapabilities or functionality (e.g., ray tracing, rasterization,internal optics, etc.).

In at least one embodiment, hardware 3722 may include GPUs 3822, AIsystem 3824, cloud 3826, and/or any other hardware used for executingtraining system 3704 and/or deployment system 3706. In at least oneembodiment, GPUs 3822 (e.g., NVIDIA's TESLA and/or QUADRO GPUs) mayinclude any number of GPUs that may be used for executing processingtasks of compute services 3816, AI services 3818, visualization services3820, other services, and/or any of features or functionality ofsoftware 3718. For example, with respect to AI services 3818, GPUs 3822may be used to perform pre-processing on imaging data (or other datatypes used by machine learning models), post-processing on outputs ofmachine learning models, and/or to perform inferencing (e.g., to executemachine learning models). In at least one embodiment, cloud 3826, AIsystem 3824, and/or other components of system 3800 may use GPUs 3822.In at least one embodiment, cloud 3826 may include a GPU-optimizedplatform for deep learning tasks. In at least one embodiment, AI system3824 may use GPUs, and cloud 3826—or at least a portion tasked with deeplearning or inferencing—may be executed using one or more AI systems3824. As such, although hardware 3722 is illustrated as discretecomponents, this is not intended to be limiting, and any components ofhardware 3722 may be combined with, or leveraged by, any othercomponents of hardware 3722.

In at least one embodiment, AI system 3824 may include a purpose-builtcomputing system (e.g., a super-computer or an HPC) configured forinferencing, deep learning, machine learning, and/or other artificialintelligence tasks. In at least one embodiment, AI system 3824 (e.g.,NVIDIA's DGX) may include GPU-optimized software (e.g., a softwarestack) that may be executed using a plurality of GPUs 3822, in additionto CPUs, RAM, storage, and/or other components, features, orfunctionality. In at least one embodiment, one or more AI systems 3824may be implemented in cloud 3826 (e.g., in a data center) for performingsome or all of AI-based processing tasks of system 3800.

In at least one embodiment, cloud 3826 may include a GPU-acceleratedinfrastructure (e.g., NVIDIA's NGC) that may provide a GPU-optimizedplatform for executing processing tasks of system 3800. In at least oneembodiment, cloud 3826 may include an AI system(s) 3824 for performingone or more of AI-based tasks of system 3800 (e.g., as a hardwareabstraction and scaling platform). In at least one embodiment, cloud3826 may integrate with application orchestration system 3828 leveragingmultiple GPUs to enable seamless scaling and load balancing between andamong applications and services 3720. In at least one embodiment, cloud3826 may tasked with executing at least some of services 3720 of system3800, including compute services 3816, AI services 3818, and/orvisualization services 3820, as described herein. In at least oneembodiment, cloud 3826 may perform small and large batch inference(e.g., executing NVIDIA's TENSOR RT), provide an accelerated parallelcomputing API and platform 3830 (e.g., NVIDIA's CUDA), executeapplication orchestration system 3828 (e.g., KUBERNETES), provide agraphics rendering API and platform (e.g., for ray-tracing, 2D graphics,3D graphics, and/or other rendering techniques to produce higher qualitycinematics), and/or may provide other functionality for system 3800.

In at least one embodiment, in an effort to preserve patientconfidentiality (e.g., where patient data or records are to be usedoff-premises), cloud 3826 may include a registry—such as a deep learningcontainer registry. In at least one embodiment, a registry may storecontainers for instantiations of applications that may performpre-processing, post-processing, or other processing tasks on patientdata. In at least one embodiment, cloud 3826 may receive data thatincludes patient data as well as sensor data in containers, performrequested processing for just sensor data in those containers, and thenforward a resultant output and/or visualizations to appropriate partiesand/or devices (e.g., on-premises medical devices used for visualizationor diagnoses), all without having to extract, store, or otherwise accesspatient data. In at least one embodiment, confidentiality of patientdata is preserved in compliance with HIPAA and/or other dataregulations.

FIG. 39 includes an example illustration of a deployment pipeline 3810Afor processing imaging data, in accordance with at least one embodiment.In at least one embodiment, system 3800—and specifically deploymentsystem 3706—may be used to customize, update, and/or integratedeployment pipeline(s) 3810A into one or more production environments.In at least one embodiment, deployment pipeline 3810A of FIG. 39includes a non-limiting example of a deployment pipeline 3810A that maybe custom defined by a particular user (or team of users) at a facility(e.g., at a hospital, clinic, lab, research environment, etc.). In atleast one embodiment, to define deployment pipelines 3810A for a CTscanner 3902, a user may select—from a container registry, forexample—one or more applications that perform specific functions ortasks with respect to imaging data generated by CT scanner 3902. In atleast one embodiment, applications may be applied to deployment pipeline3810A as containers that may leverage services 3720 and/or hardware 3722of system 3800. In addition, deployment pipeline 3810A may includeadditional processing tasks or applications that may be implemented toprepare data for use by applications (e.g., DICOM adapter 3802B andDICOM reader 3906 may be used in deployment pipeline 3810A to preparedata for use by CT reconstruction 3908, organ segmentation 3910, etc.).In at least one embodiment, deployment pipeline 3810A may be customizedor selected for consistent deployment, one time use, or for anotherfrequency or interval. In at least one embodiment, a user may desire tohave CT reconstruction 3908 and organ segmentation 3910 for severalsubjects over a specific interval, and thus may deploy pipeline 3810Afor that period of time. In at least one embodiment, a user may select,for each request from system 3800, applications that a user wants toperform processing on that data for that request. In at least oneembodiment, deployment pipeline 3810A may be adjusted at any intervaland, because of adaptability and scalability of a container structurewithin system 3800, this may be a seamless process.

In at least one embodiment, deployment pipeline 3810A of FIG. 39 mayinclude CT scanner 3902 generating imaging data of a patient or subject.In at least one embodiment, imaging data from CT scanner 3902 may bestored on a PACS server(s) 3904 associated with a facility housing CTscanner 3902. In at least one embodiment, PACS server(s) 3904 mayinclude software and/or hardware components that may directly interfacewith imaging modalities (e.g., CT scanner 3902) at a facility. In atleast one embodiment, DICOM adapter 3802B may enable sending and receiptof DICOM objects using DICOM protocols. In at least one embodiment,DICOM adapter 3802B may aid in preparation or configuration of DICOMdata from PACS server(s) 3904 for use by deployment pipeline 3810A. Inat least one embodiment, once DICOM data is processed through DICOMadapter 3802B, pipeline manager 3812 may route data through todeployment pipeline 3810A. In at least one embodiment, DICOM reader 3906may extract image files and any associated metadata from DICOM data(e.g., raw sinogram data, as illustrated in visualization 3916A). In atleast one embodiment, working files that are extracted may be stored ina cache for faster processing by other applications in deploymentpipeline 3810A. In at least one embodiment, once DICOM reader 3906 hasfinished extracting and/or storing data, a signal of completion may becommunicated to pipeline manager 3812. In at least one embodiment,pipeline manager 3812 may then initiate or call upon one or more otherapplications or containers in deployment pipeline 3810A.

In at least one embodiment, CT reconstruction 3908 application and/orcontainer may be executed once data (e.g., raw sinogram data) isavailable for processing by CT reconstruction 3908 application. In atleast one embodiment, CT reconstruction 3908 may read raw sinogram datafrom a cache, reconstruct an image file out of raw sinogram data (e.g.,as illustrated in visualization 3916B), and store resulting image filein a cache. In at least one embodiment, at completion of reconstruction,pipeline manager 3812 may be signaled that reconstruction task iscomplete. In at least one embodiment, once reconstruction is complete,and a reconstructed image file may be stored in a cache (or otherstorage device), organ segmentation 3910 application and/or containermay be triggered by pipeline manager 3812. In at least one embodiment,organ segmentation 3910 application and/or container may read an imagefile from a cache, normalize or convert an image file to format suitablefor inference (e.g., convert an image file to an input resolution of amachine learning model), and run inference against a normalized image.In at least one embodiment, to run inference on a normalized image,organ segmentation 3910 application and/or container may rely onservices 3720, and pipeline manager 3812 and/or applicationorchestration system 3828 may facilitate use of services 3720 by organsegmentation 3910 application and/or container. In at least oneembodiment, for example, organ segmentation 3910 application and/orcontainer may leverage AI services 3818 to perform inference on anormalized image, and AI services 3818 may leverage hardware 3722 (e.g.,AI system 3824) to execute AI services 3818. In at least one embodiment,a result of an inference may be a mask file (e.g., as illustrated invisualization 3916C) that may be stored in a cache (or other storagedevice).

In at least one embodiment, once applications that process DICOM dataand/or data extracted from DICOM data have completed processing, asignal may be generated for pipeline manager 3812. In at least oneembodiment, pipeline manager 3812 may then execute DICOM writer 3912 toread results from a cache (or other storage device), package resultsinto a DICOM format (e.g., as DICOM output 3914) for use by users at afacility who generated a request. In at least one embodiment, DICOMoutput 3914 may then be transmitted to DICOM adapter 3802B to prepareDICOM output 3914 for storage on PACS server(s) 3904 (e.g., for viewingby a DICOM viewer at a facility). In at least one embodiment, inresponse to a request for reconstruction and segmentation,visualizations 3916B and 3916C may be generated and available to a userfor diagnoses, research, and/or for other purposes.

Although illustrated as consecutive application in deployment pipeline3810A, CT reconstruction 3908 and organ segmentation 3910 applicationsmay be processed in parallel in at least one embodiment. In at least oneembodiment, where applications do not have dependencies on one another,and data is available for each application (e.g., after DICOM reader3906 extracts data), applications may be executed at a same time,substantially at a same time, or with some overlap. In at least oneembodiment, where two or more applications require similar services3720, a scheduler of system 3800 may be used to load balance anddistribute compute or processing resources between and among variousapplications. In at least one embodiment, in some embodiments, parallelcomputing platform 3830 may be used to perform parallel processing forapplications to decrease run-time of deployment pipeline 3810A toprovide real-time results.

In at least one embodiment, and with reference to FIGS. 40A-40B,deployment system 3706 may be implemented as one or more virtualinstruments to perform different functionalities—such as imageprocessing, segmentation, enhancement, AI, visualization, andinferencing—with imaging devices (e.g., CT scanners, X-ray machines,Mill machines, etc.), sequencing devices, genomics devices, and/or otherdevice types. In at least one embodiment, system 3800 may allow forcreation and provision of virtual instruments that may include asoftware-defined deployment pipeline 3810 that may receiveraw/unprocessed input data generated by a device(s) and outputprocessed/reconstructed data. In at least one embodiment, deploymentpipelines 3810 (e.g., 3810A and 3810B) that represent virtualinstruments may implement intelligence into a pipeline, such as byleveraging machine learning models, to provide containerized inferencesupport to a system. In at least one embodiment, virtual instruments mayexecute any number of containers each including instantiations ofapplications. In at least one embodiment, such as where real-timeprocessing is desired, deployment pipelines 3810 representing virtualinstruments may be static (e.g., containers and/or applications may beset), while in other examples, container and/or applications for virtualinstruments may be selected (e.g., on a per-request basis) from a poolof applications or resources (e.g., within a container registry).

In at least one embodiment, system 3800 may be instantiated or executedas one or more virtual instruments on-premise at a facility in, forexample, a computing system deployed next to or otherwise incommunication with a radiology machine, an imaging device, and/oranother device type at a facility. In at least one embodiment, however,an on-premise installation may be instantiated or executed within acomputing system of a device itself (e.g., a computing system integralto an imaging device), in a local datacenter (e.g., a datacenteron-premise), and/or in a cloud-environment (e.g., in cloud 3826). In atleast one embodiment, deployment system 3706, operating as a virtualinstrument, may be instantiated by a supercomputer or other HPC systemin some examples. In at least one embodiment, on-premise installationmay allow for high-bandwidth uses (via, for example, higher throughputlocal communication interfaces, such as RF over Ethernet) for real-timeprocessing. In at least one embodiment, real-time or near real-timeprocessing may be particularly useful where a virtual instrumentsupports an ultrasound device or other imaging modality where immediatevisualizations are expected or required for accurate diagnoses andanalyses. In at least one embodiment, a cloud-computing architecture maybe capable of dynamic bursting to a cloud computing service provider, orother compute cluster, when local demand exceeds on-premise capacity orcapability. In at least one embodiment, a cloud architecture, whenimplemented, may be tuned for training neural networks or other machinelearning models, as described herein with respect to training system3704. In at least one embodiment, with training pipelines in place,machine learning models may be continuously learn and improve as theyprocess additional data from devices they support. In at least oneembodiment, virtual instruments may be continually improved usingadditional data, new data, existing machine learning models, and/or newor updated machine learning models.

In at least one embodiment, a computing system may include some or allof hardware 3722 described herein, and hardware 3722 may be distributedin any of a number of ways including within a device, as part of acomputing device coupled to and located proximate a device, in a localdatacenter at a facility, and/or in cloud 3826. In at least oneembodiment, because deployment system 3706 and associated applicationsor containers are created in software (e.g., as discrete containerizedinstantiations of applications), behavior, operation, and configurationof virtual instruments, as well as outputs generated by virtualinstruments, may be modified or customized as desired, without having tochange or alter raw output of a device that a virtual instrumentsupports.

FIG. 40A includes an example data flow diagram of a virtual instrumentsupporting an ultrasound device, in accordance with at least oneembodiment. In at least one embodiment, deployment pipeline 3810B mayleverage one or more of services 3720 of system 3800. In at least oneembodiment, deployment pipeline 3810B and services 3720 may leveragehardware 3722 of a system either locally or in cloud 3826. In at leastone embodiment, although not illustrated, process 4000 may befacilitated by pipeline manager 3812, application orchestration system3828, and/or parallel computing platform 3830.

In at least one embodiment, process 4000 may include receipt of imagingdata from an ultrasound device 4002. In at least one embodiment, imagingdata may be stored on PACS server(s) in a DICOM format (or other format,such as RIS, CIS, REST compliant, RPC, raw, etc.), and may be receivedby system 3800 for processing through deployment pipeline 3810 selectedor customized as a virtual instrument (e.g., a virtual ultrasound) forultrasound device 4002. In at least one embodiment, imaging data may bereceived directly from an imaging device (e.g., ultrasound device 4002)and processed by a virtual instrument. In at least one embodiment, atransducer or other signal converter communicatively coupled between animaging device and a virtual instrument may convert signal datagenerated by an imaging device to image data that may be processed by avirtual instrument. In at least one embodiment, raw data and/or imagedata may be applied to DICOM reader 3906 to extract data for use byapplications or containers of deployment pipeline 3810B. In at least oneembodiment, DICOM reader 3906 may leverage data augmentation library4014 (e.g., NVIDIA's DALI) as a service 3720 (e.g., as one of computeservice(s) 3816) for extracting, resizing, rescaling, and/or otherwisepreparing data for use by applications or containers.

In at least one embodiment, once data is prepared, a reconstruction 4006application and/or container may be executed to reconstruct data fromultrasound device 4002 into an image file. In at least one embodiment,after reconstruction 4006, or at a same time as reconstruction 4006, adetection 4008 application and/or container may be executed for anomalydetection, object detection, feature detection, and/or other detectiontasks related to data. In at least one embodiment, an image filegenerated during reconstruction 4006 may be used during detection 4008to identify anomalies, objects, features, etc. In at least oneembodiment, detection 4008 application may leverage an inference engine4016 (e.g., as one of AI service(s) 3818) to perform inference on datato generate detections. In at least one embodiment, one or more machinelearning models (e.g., from training system 3704) may be executed orcalled by detection 4008 application.

In at least one embodiment, once reconstruction 4006 and/or detection4008 is/are complete, data output from these application and/orcontainers may be used to generate visualizations 4010, such asvisualization 4012 (e.g., a grayscale output) displayed on a workstationor display terminal. In at least one embodiment, visualization may allowa technician or other user to visualize results of deployment pipeline3810B with respect to ultrasound device 4002. In at least oneembodiment, visualization 4010 may be executed by leveraging a rendercomponent 4018 of system 3800 (e.g., one of visualization service(s)3820). In at least one embodiment, render component 4018 may execute a2D, OpenGL, or ray-tracing service to generate visualization 4012.

FIG. 40B includes an example data flow diagram of a virtual instrumentsupporting a CT scanner, in accordance with at least one embodiment. Inat least one embodiment, deployment pipeline 3810C may leverage one ormore of services 3720 of system 3800. In at least one embodiment,deployment pipeline 3810C and services 3720 may leverage hardware 3722of a system either locally or in cloud 3826. In at least one embodiment,although not illustrated, process 4020 may be facilitated by pipelinemanager 3812, application orchestration system 3828, and/or parallelcomputing platform 3830.

In at least one embodiment, process 4020 may include CT scanner 4022generating raw data that may be received by DICOM reader 3906 (e.g.,directly, via a PACS server 3904, after processing, etc.). In at leastone embodiment, a Virtual CT (instantiated by deployment pipeline 3810C)may include a first, real-time pipeline for monitoring a patient (e.g.,patient movement detection AI 4026) and/or for adjusting or optimizingexposure of CT scanner 4022 (e.g., using exposure control AI 4024). Inat least one embodiment, one or more of applications (e.g., 4024 and4026) may leverage a service 3720, such as AI service(s) 3818. In atleast one embodiment, outputs of exposure control AI 4024 application(or container) and/or patient movement detection AI 4026 application (orcontainer) may be used as feedback to CT scanner 4022 and/or atechnician for adjusting exposure (or other settings of CT scanner 4022)and/or informing a patient to move less.

In at least one embodiment, deployment pipeline 3810C may include anon-real-time pipeline for analyzing data generated by CT scanner 4022.In at least one embodiment, a second pipeline may include CTreconstruction 3908 application and/or container, a coarse detection AI4028 application and/or container, a fine detection AI 4032 applicationand/or container (e.g., where certain results are detected by coarsedetection AI 4028), a visualization 4030 application and/or container,and a DICOM writer 3912 (and/or other data type writer, such as RIS,CIS, REST compliant, RPC, raw, etc.) application and/or container. In atleast one embodiment, raw data generated by CT scanner 4022 may bepassed through pipelines of deployment pipeline 3810C (instantiated as avirtual CT instrument) to generate results. In at least one embodiment,results from DICOM writer 3912 may be transmitted for display and/or maybe stored on PACS server(s) 3904 for later retrieval, analysis, ordisplay by a technician, practitioner, or other user.

FIG. 41A illustrates a data flow diagram for a process 4100 to train,retrain, or update a machine learning model, in accordance with at leastone embodiment. In at least one embodiment, process 4100 may be executedusing, as a non-limiting example, system 3800 of FIG. 38. In at leastone embodiment, process 4100 may leverage services 3720 and/or hardware3722 of system 3800, as described herein. In at least one embodiment,refined models 4112 generated by process 4100 may be executed bydeployment system 3706 for one or more containerized applications indeployment pipelines 3810.

In at least one embodiment, model training 3714 may include retrainingor updating an initial model 4104 (e.g., a pre-trained model) using newtraining data (e.g., new input data, such as customer dataset 4106,and/or new ground truth data associated with input data). In at leastone embodiment, to retrain, or update, initial model 4104, output orloss layer(s) of initial model 4104 may be reset, or deleted, and/orreplaced with an updated or new output or loss layer(s). In at least oneembodiment, initial model 4104 may have previously fine-tuned parameters(e.g., weights and/or biases) that remain from prior training, sotraining or retraining 3714 may not take as long or require as muchprocessing as training a model from scratch. In at least one embodiment,during model training 3714, by having reset or replaced output or losslayer(s) of initial model 4104, parameters may be updated and re-tunedfor a new data set based on loss calculations associated with accuracyof output or loss layer(s) at generating predictions on new, customerdataset 4106 (e.g., image data 3708 of FIG. 37).

In at least one embodiment, pre-trained models 3806 may be stored in adata store, or registry (e.g., model registry 3724 of FIG. 37). In atleast one embodiment, pre-trained models 3806 may have been trained, atleast in part, at one or more facilities other than a facility executingprocess 4100. In at least one embodiment, to protect privacy and rightsof patients, subjects, or clients of different facilities, pre-trainedmodels 3806 may have been trained, on-premise, using customer or patientdata generated on-premise. In at least one embodiment, pre-trainedmodels 3806 may be trained using cloud 3826 and/or other hardware 3722,but confidential, privacy protected patient data may not be transferredto, used by, or accessible to any components of cloud 3826 (or other offpremise hardware). In at least one embodiment, where a pre-trained model3806 is trained at using patient data from more than one facility,pre-trained model 3806 may have been individually trained for eachfacility prior to being trained on patient or customer data from anotherfacility. In at least one embodiment, such as where a customer orpatient data has been released of privacy concerns (e.g., by waiver, forexperimental use, etc.), or where a customer or patient data is includedin a public data set, a customer or patient data from any number offacilities may be used to train pre-trained model 3806 on-premise and/oroff premise, such as in a datacenter or other cloud computinginfrastructure.

In at least one embodiment, when selecting applications for use indeployment pipelines 3810, a user may also select machine learningmodels to be used for specific applications. In at least one embodiment,a user may not have a model for use, so a user may select a pre-trainedmodel 3806 to use with an application. In at least one embodiment,pre-trained model 3806 may not be optimized for generating accurateresults on customer dataset 4106 of a facility of a user (e.g., based onpatient diversity, demographics, types of medical imaging devices used,etc.). In at least one embodiment, prior to deploying pre-trained model3806 into deployment pipeline 3810 for use with an application(s),pre-trained model 3806 may be updated, retrained, and/or fine-tuned foruse at a respective facility.

In at least one embodiment, a user may select pre-trained model 3806that is to be updated, retrained, and/or fine-tuned, and pre-trainedmodel 3806 may be referred to as initial model 4104 for training system3704 within process 4100. In at least one embodiment, customer dataset4106 (e.g., imaging data, genomics data, sequencing data, or other datatypes generated by devices at a facility) may be used to perform modeltraining 3714 (which may include, without limitation, transfer learning)on initial model 4104 to generate refined model 4112. In at least oneembodiment, ground truth data corresponding to customer dataset 4106 maybe generated by training system 3704. In at least one embodiment, groundtruth data may be generated, at least in part, by clinicians,scientists, doctors, practitioners, at a facility (e.g., as labeledclinic data 3712 of FIG. 37).

In at least one embodiment, AI-assisted annotation 3710 may be used insome examples to generate ground truth data. In at least one embodiment,AI-assisted annotation 3710 (e.g., implemented using an AI-assistedannotation SDK) may leverage machine learning models (e.g., neuralnetworks) to generate suggested or predicted ground truth data for acustomer dataset. In at least one embodiment, user 4110 may useannotation tools within a user interface (a graphical user interface(GUI)) on computing device 4108.

In at least one embodiment, user 4110 may interact with a GUI viacomputing device 4108 to edit or fine-tune annotations orauto-annotations. In at least one embodiment, a polygon editing featuremay be used to move vertices of a polygon to more accurate or fine-tunedlocations.

In at least one embodiment, once customer dataset 4106 has associatedground truth data, ground truth data (e.g., from AI-assisted annotation,manual labeling, etc.) may be used by during model training 3714 togenerate refined model 4112. In at least one embodiment, customerdataset 4106 may be applied to initial model 4104 any number of times,and ground truth data may be used to update parameters of initial model4104 until an acceptable level of accuracy is attained for refined model4112. In at least one embodiment, once refined model 4112 is generated,refined model 4112 may be deployed within one or more deploymentpipelines 3810 at a facility for performing one or more processing taskswith respect to medical imaging data.

In at least one embodiment, refined model 4112 may be uploaded topre-trained models 3806 in model registry 3724 to be selected by anotherfacility. In at least one embodiment, his process may be completed atany number of facilities such that refined model 4112 may be furtherrefined on new datasets any number of times to generate a more universalmodel.

FIG. 41B is an example illustration of a client-server architecture 4132to enhance annotation tools with pre-trained annotation models, inaccordance with at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment,AI-assisted annotation tools 4136 may be instantiated based on aclient-server architecture 4132. In at least one embodiment, annotationtools 4136 in imaging applications may aid radiologists, for example,identify organs and abnormalities. In at least one embodiment, imagingapplications may include software tools that help user 4110 to identify,as a non-limiting example, a few extreme points on a particular organ ofinterest in raw images 4134 (e.g., in a 3D MM or CT scan) and receiveauto-annotated results for all 2D slices of a particular organ. In atleast one embodiment, results may be stored in a data store as trainingdata 4138 and used as (for example and without limitation) ground truthdata for training. In at least one embodiment, when computing device4108 sends extreme points for AI-assisted annotation 3710, a deeplearning model, for example, may receive this data as input and returninference results of a segmented organ or abnormality. In at least oneembodiment, pre-instantiated annotation tools, such as AI-AssistedAnnotation Tool 4136B in FIG. 41B, may be enhanced by making API calls(e.g., API Call 4144) to a server, such as an Annotation AssistantServer 4140 that may include a set of pre-trained models 4142 stored inan annotation model registry, for example. In at least one embodiment,an annotation model registry may store pre-trained models 4142 (e.g.,machine learning models, such as deep learning models) that arepre-trained to perform AI-assisted annotation on a particular organ orabnormality. In at least one embodiment, these models may be furtherupdated by using training pipelines 3804. In at least one embodiment,pre-installed annotation tools may be improved over time as new labeledclinic data 3712 is added.

Inference and/or training logic 815 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 815 are providedherein in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and/or 8B.

In at least one embodiment, a single semiconductor platform may refer toa sole unitary semiconductor-based integrated circuit or chip. In atleast one embodiment, multi-chip modules may be used with increasedconnectivity which simulate on-chip operation, and make substantialimprovements over utilizing a conventional central processing unit(“CPU”) and bus implementation. In at least one embodiment, variousmodules may also be situated separately or in various combinations ofsemiconductor platforms per desires of user.

In at least one embodiment, referring back to FIG. 14, computer programsin form of machine-readable executable code or computer control logicalgorithms are stored in main memory 1404 and/or secondary storage.Computer programs, if executed by one or more processors, enable system1400 to perform various functions in accordance with at least oneembodiment. In at least one embodiment, memory 1404, storage, and/or anyother storage are possible examples of computer-readable media. In atleast one embodiment, secondary storage may refer to any suitablestorage device or system such as a hard disk drive and/or a removablestorage drive, representing a floppy disk drive, a magnetic tape drive,a compact disk drive, digital versatile disk (“DVD”) drive, recordingdevice, universal serial bus (“USB”) flash memory, etc. In at least oneembodiment, architecture and/or functionality of various previousfigures are implemented in context of CPU 1402, parallel processingsystem 1412, an integrated circuit capable of at least a portion ofcapabilities of both CPU 1402, parallel processing system 1412, achipset (e.g., a group of integrated circuits designed to work and soldas a unit for performing related functions, etc.), and/or any suitablecombination of integrated circuit(s).

In at least one embodiment, architecture and/or functionality of variousprevious figures are implemented in context of a general computersystem, a circuit board system, a game console system dedicated forentertainment purposes, an application-specific system, and more. In atleast one embodiment, computer system 1400 may take form of a desktopcomputer, a laptop computer, a tablet computer, servers, supercomputers,a smart-phone (e.g., a wireless, hand-held device), personal digitalassistant (“PDA”), a digital camera, a vehicle, a head mounted display,a hand-held electronic device, a mobile phone device, a television,workstation, game consoles, embedded system, and/or any other type oflogic.

In at least one embodiment, parallel processing system 1412 includes,without limitation, a plurality of parallel processing units (“PPUs”)1414 and associated memories 1416. In at least one embodiment, PPUs 1414are connected to a host processor or other peripheral devices via aninterconnect 1418 and a switch 1420 or multiplexer. In at least oneembodiment, parallel processing system 1412 distributes computationaltasks across PPUs 1414 which can be parallelizable—for example, as partof distribution of computational tasks across multiple graphicsprocessing unit (“GPU”) thread blocks. In at least one embodiment,memory is shared and accessible (e.g., for read and/or write access)across some or all of PPUs 1414, although such shared memory may incurperformance penalties relative to use of local memory and registersresident to a PPU 1414. In at least one embodiment, operation of PPUs1414 is synchronized through use of a command such as _syncthreads( ),wherein all threads in a block (e.g., executed across multiple PPUs1414) to reach a certain point of execution of code before proceeding.

Other variations are within spirit of present disclosure. Thus, whiledisclosed techniques are susceptible to various modifications andalternative constructions, certain illustrated embodiments thereof areshown in drawings and have been described above in detail. It should beunderstood, however, that there is no intention to limit disclosure tospecific form or forms disclosed, but on contrary, intention is to coverall modifications, alternative constructions, and equivalents fallingwithin spirit and scope of disclosure, as defined in appended claims.

Use of terms “a” and “an” and “the” and similar referents in context ofdescribing disclosed embodiments (especially in context of followingclaims) are to be construed to cover both singular and plural, unlessotherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted by context, and notas a definition of a term. Terms “comprising,” “having,” “including,”and “containing” are to be construed as open-ended terms (meaning“including, but not limited to,”) unless otherwise noted. “Connected,”when unmodified and referring to physical connections, is to beconstrued as partly or wholly contained within, attached to, or joinedtogether, even if there is something intervening. Recitation of rangesof values herein are merely intended to serve as a shorthand method ofreferring individually to each separate value falling within range,unless otherwise indicated herein and each separate value isincorporated into specification as if it were individually recitedherein. In at least one embodiment, use of term “set” (e.g., “a set ofitems”) or “subset” unless otherwise noted or contradicted by context,is to be construed as a nonempty collection comprising one or moremembers. Further, unless otherwise noted or contradicted by context,term “subset” of a corresponding set does not necessarily denote aproper subset of corresponding set, but subset and corresponding set maybe equal.

Conjunctive language, such as phrases of form “at least one of A, B, andC,” or “at least one of A, B and C,” unless specifically statedotherwise or otherwise clearly contradicted by context, is otherwiseunderstood with context as used in general to present that an item,term, etc., may be either A or B or C, or any nonempty subset of set ofA and B and C. For instance, in illustrative example of a set havingthree members, conjunctive phrases “at least one of A, B, and C” and “atleast one of A, B and C” refer to any of following sets: {A}, {B}, {C},{A, B}, {A, C}, {B, C}, {A, B, C}. Thus, such conjunctive language isnot generally intended to imply that certain embodiments require atleast one of A, at least one of B and at least one of C each to bepresent. In addition, unless otherwise noted or contradicted by context,term “plurality” indicates a state of being plural (e.g., “a pluralityof items” indicates multiple items). In at least one embodiment, numberof items in a plurality is at least two, but can be more when soindicated either explicitly or by context. Further, unless statedotherwise or otherwise clear from context, phrase “based on” means“based at least in part on” and not “based solely on.”

Operations of processes described herein can be performed in anysuitable order unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearlycontradicted by context. In at least one embodiment, a process such asthose processes described herein (or variations and/or combinationsthereof) is performed under control of one or more computer systemsconfigured with executable instructions and is implemented as code(e.g., executable instructions, one or more computer programs or one ormore applications) executing collectively on one or more processors, byhardware or combinations thereof. In at least one embodiment, code isstored on a computer-readable storage medium, for example, in form of acomputer program comprising a plurality of instructions executable byone or more processors. In at least one embodiment, a computer-readablestorage medium is a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium thatexcludes transitory signals (e.g., a propagating transient electric orelectromagnetic transmission) but includes non-transitory data storagecircuitry (e.g., buffers, cache, and queues) within transceivers oftransitory signals. In at least one embodiment, code (e.g., executablecode or source code) is stored on a set of one or more non-transitorycomputer-readable storage media having stored thereon executableinstructions (or other memory to store executable instructions) that,when executed (i.e., as a result of being executed) by one or moreprocessors of a computer system, cause computer system to performoperations described herein. In at least one embodiment, set ofnon-transitory computer-readable storage media comprises multiplenon-transitory computer-readable storage media and one or more ofindividual non-transitory storage media of multiple non-transitorycomputer-readable storage media lack all of code while multiplenon-transitory computer-readable storage media collectively store all ofcode. In at least one embodiment, executable instructions are executedsuch that different instructions are executed by differentprocessors—for example, a non-transitory computer-readable storagemedium store instructions and a main central processing unit (“CPU”)executes some of instructions while a graphics processing unit (“GPU”)executes other instructions. In at least one embodiment, differentcomponents of a computer system have separate processors and differentprocessors execute different subsets of instructions.

Accordingly, in at least one embodiment, computer systems are configuredto implement one or more services that singly or collectively performoperations of processes described herein and such computer systems areconfigured with applicable hardware and/or software that enableperformance of operations. Further, a computer system that implements atleast one embodiment of present disclosure is a single device and, inanother embodiment, is a distributed computer system comprising multipledevices that operate differently such that distributed computer systemperforms operations described herein and such that a single device doesnot perform all operations.

Use of any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., “such as”)provided herein, is intended merely to better illuminate embodiments ofdisclosure and does not pose a limitation on scope of disclosure unlessotherwise claimed. No language in specification should be construed asindicating any non-claimed element as essential to practice ofdisclosure.

All references, including publications, patent applications, andpatents, cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference to sameextent as if each reference were individually and specifically indicatedto be incorporated by reference and were set forth in its entiretyherein.

In description and claims, terms “coupled” and “connected,” along withtheir derivatives, may be used. It should be understood that these termsmay be not intended as synonyms for each other. Rather, in particularexamples, “connected” or “coupled” may be used to indicate that two ormore elements are in direct or indirect physical or electrical contactwith each other. “Coupled” may also mean that two or more elements arenot in direct contact with each other, but yet still co-operate orinteract with each other.

Unless specifically stated otherwise, it may be appreciated thatthroughout specification terms such as “processing,” “computing,”“calculating,” “determining,” or like, refer to action and/or processesof a computer or computing system, or similar electronic computingdevice, that manipulate and/or transform data represented as physical,such as electronic, quantities within computing system's registersand/or memories into other data similarly represented as physicalquantities within computing system's memories, registers or other suchinformation storage, transmission or display devices.

In a similar manner, term “processor” may refer to any device or portionof a device that processes electronic data from registers and/or memoryand transform that electronic data into other electronic data that maybe stored in registers and/or memory. As non-limiting examples,“processor” may be a CPU or a GPU. A “computing platform” may compriseone or more processors. As used herein, “software” processes mayinclude, for example, software and/or hardware entities that performwork over time, such as tasks, threads, and intelligent agents. Also,each process may refer to multiple processes, for carrying outinstructions in sequence or in parallel, continuously or intermittently.In at least one embodiment, terms “system” and “method” are used hereininterchangeably insofar as system may embody one or more methods andmethods may be considered a system.

In present document, references may be made to obtaining, acquiring,receiving, or inputting analog or digital data into a subsystem,computer system, or computer-implemented machine. In at least oneembodiment, process of obtaining, acquiring, receiving, or inputtinganalog and digital data can be accomplished in a variety of ways such asby receiving data as a parameter of a function call or a call to anapplication programming interface. In some implementations, process ofobtaining, acquiring, receiving, or inputting analog or digital data canbe accomplished by transferring data via a serial or parallel interface.In another implementation, process of obtaining, acquiring, receiving,or inputting analog or digital data can be accomplished by transferringdata via a computer network from providing entity to acquiring entity.References may also be made to providing, outputting, transmitting,sending, or presenting analog or digital data. In various examples,process of providing, outputting, transmitting, sending, or presentinganalog or digital data can be accomplished by transferring data as aninput or output parameter of a function call, a parameter of anapplication programming interface or interprocess communicationmechanism.

Although discussion above sets forth example implementations ofdescribed techniques, other architectures may be used to implementdescribed functionality, and are intended to be within scope of thisdisclosure. Furthermore, although specific distributions ofresponsibilities are defined above for purposes of discussion, variousfunctions and responsibilities might be distributed and divided indifferent ways, depending on circumstances.

Furthermore, although subject matter has been described in languagespecific to structural features and/or methodological acts, it is to beunderstood that subject matter claimed in appended claims is notnecessarily limited to specific features or acts described. Rather,specific features and acts are disclosed as exemplary forms ofimplementing the claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A processor comprising: one or more circuits touse one or more neural networks to generate a second image based, atleast in part, on one or more feature maps corresponding to a firstimage, wherein the first image is smaller than the second image.
 2. Theprocessor of claim 1, wherein: the one or more feature maps aregenerated by the one or more neural networks from the first image; oneor more shifted feature maps are generated from the one or more featuremaps; one or more weights are computed based, at least in part, onfeatures shared between the one or more shifted feature maps and the oneor more feature maps; one or more combined feature maps are generatedbased, at least in part, on combining the one or more shifted featuremaps and the one or more feature maps according to the one or moreweights; and the second image is generated by aggregating and upsamplingthe one or more combined feature maps.
 3. The processor of claim 2,wherein each of the one or more feature maps is scaled from the firstimage using one or more convolutional layers.
 4. The processor of claim2, wherein the one or more weights are computed based, at least in part,on which corresponding feature of the one or more shifted feature mapsand the one or more feature maps is more prominent.
 5. The processor ofclaim 2, wherein upsampling comprises zero-padding a smaller firstfeature map into a larger second feature map.
 6. The processor of claim1, wherein the first image contains a texture and the second imagecontains the texture of the first image.
 7. A system comprising: one ormore processors to train one or more neural networks to generate asecond image based, at least in part, on one or more feature mapscorresponding to a first image, wherein the first image is smaller thanthe second image.
 8. The system of claim 7, wherein: the one or morefeature maps are scaled from the first image by applying one or moreconvolutional layers; one or more weights are computed indicating asimilarity between one or more shifted feature maps and the one or morefeature maps; one or more combined feature maps are generated byapplying a summation on the one or more shifted feature maps and the oneor more feature maps according to the one or more weights; and thesecond image is generated based, at least in part, on aggregating theone or more combined feature maps.
 9. The system of claim 8, wherein theone or more shifted feature maps are determined by shifting the one ormore feature maps according to a width and a height corresponding toeach of the one or more feature maps.
 10. The system of claim 8, whereinthe one or more weights indicate whether a first feature of the one ormore feature maps or a second feature of the one or more shifted featuremaps is to be included during aggregation of the one or more combinedfeature maps.
 11. The system of claim 8, wherein aggregating the one ormore combined feature maps into the second image comprises upsamplingeach of the one or more combined feature maps.
 12. The system of claim11, wherein upsampling each of the one or more combined feature mapscomprises zero-padding a smaller first feature map into a larger secondfeature map.
 13. The system of claim 7, wherein the first image containsa texture and the second image comprises the texture of the first image.14. The system of claim 7, wherein the one or more neural networks aretrained using a generative adversarial network.
 15. The system of claim14, wherein one or more loss values are determined by the generativeadversarial network and backpropagated to one or more convolutionallayers in the one or more neural networks.
 16. A machine-readable mediumhaving stored thereon a set of instructions, which if performed by oneor more processors, cause the one or more processors to at least:generate a second image based, at least in part, on one or more featuremaps corresponding to a first image using one or more neural networks,wherein the first image is smaller than the second image.
 17. Themachine-readable medium of claim 16, wherein: the one or more featuremaps are generated the one or more neural networks from the first image;one or more weights are computed indicating a similarity between one ormore shifted feature maps and the one or more feature maps; one or morecombined feature maps are generated based, at least in part, oncombining the one or more shifted feature maps and the one or morefeature maps according to the one or more weights; and the second imageis generated by aggregating the one or more combined feature maps. 18.The machine-readable medium of claim 17, wherein each of the one or morefeature maps is scaled from the first image using one or moreconvolutional layers.
 19. The machine-readable medium of claim 17,wherein the one or more shifted feature maps are determined by shiftingthe one or more feature maps according to a width and a heightcorresponding to each of the one or more feature maps.
 20. Themachine-readable medium of claim 17, wherein the one or more weights arecomputed based, at least in part, on which corresponding feature of theone or more shifted feature maps and the one or more feature maps is tobe retained.
 21. The machine-readable medium of claim 17, whereinaggregating the one or more combined feature maps into the second imageincludes zero-padding a smaller first feature map into a larger secondfeature map.
 22. The machine-readable medium of claim 16, wherein thefirst image contains a texture and the second image contains the textureof the first image.
 23. A method comprising: training one or more neuralnetworks to generate a second image based, at least in part, on one ormore feature maps corresponding to a first image, wherein the firstimage is smaller than the second image.
 24. The method of claim 23,wherein: the one or more feature maps are scaled from the first image byapplying one or more convolutional layers; one or more weights arecomputed indicating a similarity between one or more shifted featuremaps and the one or more feature maps; one or more combined feature mapsare generated by applying a summation on the one or more shifted featuremaps and the one or more feature maps according to the one or moreweights; and the second image is generated by aggregating the one ormore combined feature maps.
 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the oneor more shifted feature maps are determined by shifting the one or morefeature maps according to one or more dimensions for each of the one ormore feature maps.
 26. The method of claim 24, wherein the one or moreweights indicate whether a first feature of the one or more feature mapsor a second feature of the one or more shifted feature maps is moreprominent.
 27. The method of claim 24, wherein aggregating the one ormore combined feature maps into the second image comprises increasingdimensions for each of the one or more combined feature maps.
 28. Themethod of claim 27, wherein increasing dimensions for each of the one ormore combined feature maps comprises zero-padding a smaller firstfeature map into a larger second feature map.
 29. The method of claim23, wherein the first image contains a texture and the second imagecomprises the texture of the first image.
 30. The method of claim 23,wherein the one or more neural networks are trained using a generativeadversarial network.
 31. The method of claim 30, wherein one or moreloss values are determined based on one or more components of thegenerative adversarial network and each of the one or more loss valuesare used to update one or more weights in one or more nodes of the oneor more convolutional neural networks.